Epidemiological Report on Stomach Cancer Tobacco Smoking

Epidemiological Report on Stomach Cancer Tobacco Smoking 1.0 BACKGROUND Cancer is among the leading causes of death in the world. In 2012, cancer was responsible for 8.2 million deaths and 14.1 million new cases were recorded, accounting for 65% of the deaths in low-middle income countries (IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012a). Cancer is a multistage process characterised by uncontrolled multiplication of abnormal cells which causes a lump to develop. This lump, known as a tumour, is named after the part of the body where it develops (American Cancer Society, 2012). Although mortality rates are higher in low-middle income countries, increased incident rates have been found in developed countries (IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012a). An increase of 8 million cases per year is expected by 2030 (WHO, 2014). A number of factors are thought to be responsible for causing cancer such as genetic factors, chemicals and radiation, viruses or infections, alcohol use, tobacco, diet, and physical inactivity, age and several more that still remain unidentified (WHO, 2014; American Cancer Society, 2012). Lifestyle plays an important role in health. About 30% of deaths due to cancer are associated with poor lifestyle behaviour, which is marked by obesity, low fruit and vegetable intake, consumption of alcohol and tobacco use (WHO, 2014). Despite tobacco being the most preventable cause of death it kills 1 person every six seconds. The tobacco epidemic kills more than 5,000,000 people in a year – which is more than the combined number of deaths by malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS (WHO, 2008). Tobacco use contributes to about 20% of cancer deaths globally (WHO, 2014). A plethora of evidence exists demonstrating the multipotent carcinogenic nature of tobacco smoke, and its ability to cause cancer at multiple sites in the body and not just the lungs. It can cause cancer of the renal pelvis and bladder, oral cavity, larynx, pancreas, nasal cavity, liver, cervix, stomach, kidney and oesophagus (Vineis et al., 2004). Smokers are 7 times at more risk of dying from these cancers than non-smokers (Kenfield et al., 2008) 2.0 CONTEXT 2.1 DEMOGRAPHY, PREVALENCE OF DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY In 2012 stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, was ranked as the third major cause of cancer related mortality in the world with 723,000 deaths reported (IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012b). An estimated one million cases of stomach cancer were recorded in the year 2012. This represents 6.8% of the total cancer cases reported. Stomach cancer is the fifth most common cancer worldwide with approximately one million cases in the following year; of which 70% of the cases occurred in low- middle income countries (IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012b). The numbers of stomach cancer cases have significantly reduced over the years (IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012b) and several epidemiological studies have been conducted to identify the causes of the disease and the reason for this decline. Figure 1 demonstrates estimated stomach neoplasm incidence and mortality (age- standardised per 100,000) worldwide in the year 2012. Distinct geographical differences exist with two third of the cases occurring in developing countries, a nd 50% of the total gastric cancer cases occurring in Eastern Asia. Eastern Asia has both high incident as well as mortality rates, but Western Africa has the lowest incidence and North America the lowest mortality rates. The incident rates (age standardised per 100,000) of stomach cancer are twice as high in men as compared to women. The striking time trends, geographical variations and gender distribution suggest the possible contribution of lifestyle and environmental factors to the aetiology of carcinoma of the stomach. Figure 1: Source: IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012 2.2 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SHOWING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN STOMACH CANCER AND TOBACCO USE Infection with Helicobacter pylori is one of the main causes of gastric neoplasm (Tredaniel, 1997) however, in certain countries like Africa, where H.pylori has high prevalence, stomach cancer rates are still low (Campbell et al., 2001; Brenner, Rothenbacher and Arndt, 2009). This suggests that there may be other factors too responsible for gastric neoplasm. A large number of studies have demonstrated a strong positive association between stomach cancer and tobacco use. The association is thought to be because of the carcinogenic substances present in tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke contains about 70 carcinogenic substances, like hydrogen cyanide, arsenic, cadmium, carbon monoxide and others, which when inhaled enter the lungs, and is carried by the blood stream to other sites in the body, depleting the sites of oxygen necessary for survival, and more importantly, damaging the DNA making cells to proliferate in an abnormal manner and cause cancer (Cancer Research UK, 2012). A number of case- control studies have demonstrated stomach cancer to be a tobacco related cancer (Minami and Tateno, 2003; Cai, Zheng and Zhang, 2003). A fourteen year prospective study conducted by the American Cancer Society showed a positive correlation between stomach carcinoma and the use of tobacco (Chao et al., 2003). According to the study, any form of tobacco use (pipe, cigar, bidi, chewing tobacco, cigarette smoking and snuff) was considered to be linked with higher incidence and mortality rates of stomach cancer. The study included 508, 351 men and 676,306 females aged thirty years or older, residing in a house with at least one individual forty-five years or above. The individuals were chosen from fifty states in the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Men were made to complete questionnaires, with questions about current or past use of any tobacco product, while women only asked about use of cigarette smoking. The study was adjusted for all variables thought to act as confounding factors; age, race, family history, education, diet, use of multivitamins and aspirin (Chao et al., 2003). Tobacco users among men are 1.68 times more likely to die of stomach cancer and women who use tobacco are 1.38 times more likely than non-tobacco users. Men who are currently tobacco users are 2.12 times (95% CI, 1.76-2.54) as likely to die of gastric carcinoma as those who have never smoked tobacco. Women smokers are 1.5 times at more risk than non-smokers (Table 1). And the risk increased with the duration of tobacco use (Chao et al. 2003) Table 1: Tobacco Use and Relative Risk of Gastric Cancer Type of Tobacco Use Men Relative Risk (95% CI) Women Relative Risk (95% CI) Never-used any type of tobacco 1.00 1.00 Ever-user of any type of tobacco 1.73 (1.47–2.04) 1.34 (1.12–1.60) Current user of any type of tobacco 2.12 (1.76–2.54) 1.51 (1.20–1.90) Source: Chao et al., 2003 (Modified and prepared in MS. Word according to required data) 3.0 METHOD/ DATA In order to assess the possible causal relationship between carcinoma of stomach and the use of tobacco particularly in current tobacco smokers, data was withdrawn from WHO database. Data for nine countries with the highest incident rates were taken from IARC, GLOBOCAN (2012) database and the tobacco rates for each country were taken from â€Å"Tobacco Country Profile† from the WHO Report on Global Epidemics (WHO, 2013). The data from the two sources was combined to form one table for purpose of analysing the relationship. Rank Country Age-Standardised Rate per 100,000 (World) Prevalence of Tobacco Use (%)2012 1 Korea, Republic of 41.8 25.7 2 Mongolia 32.5 27 3 Japan 29.9 22 4 Guatemala 23.7 10 5 China 22.7 25 6 Kazakhstan 21.6 24 7 Kyrgyzstan 21.4 23 8 Albania 20.1 26 9 Belarus 18.8 29 Table 2: Data showing incidence of gastric cancer in both sexes in 2012 (IARC, GLOBOCAN, 2012) Data showing tobacco use in adults in the year 2012 (WHO, 2013) In order to get a clear picture, a graph (Figure 2) was drawn from the data in Table 2 to understand if there was a co-relation between the exposure, i.e., tobacco use and outcome, i.e., stomach cancer and if it was appropriate to refer gastric cancer as a â€Å"tobacco-related cancer† as has been referred by many other studies. Figure 3: Incidence of stomach cancer and tobacco use Data from IARC, GLOBOCAN (2012) and Tobacco Country Profile (WHO, 2013) collected in MS Excel and graph generated in MS World 4.0 RESULTS: Striking results were observed on analysing the data and graphs. High rates of tobacco consumption were considered to be responsible for causing stomach carcinoma. It was expected that the countries showing high number of stomach cancer cases would also show high consumption of tobacco among the population. However, an irregular trend is observed between the exposure and outcome. The Republic of Korea, having the highest rates of stomach cancer should have shown high rates of tobacco use, however, it shows lower rates of tobacco smoking than Belarus. Similarly, Belarus having the lowest number of stomach cancer cases among the nine listed countries, demonstrates the highest prevalence of tobacco usage in adults. 5.0 DISCUSSION Several epidemiologic studies have shown a positive causal relationship between tobacco smoke and increased incidence of stomach cancer. Evidence suggests that 20% of the stomach cancer cases in the United Kingdom can be attributed to the use of tobacco (Cancer Research UK, 2014). However, a few studies like the self-analysis of data above were unable to find any positive association between stomach cancer and tobacco use. In a twenty eight year cohort study conducted in Norway, with 26,000 Norwegian men and women, no association was found between stomach cancer and tobacco consumption (Engeland, 1996). Similarly a case control study carried out in Japan seemed to show no relationship of tobacco use and increased rates of stomach cancer (Murata, 1996). When considering epidemiological studies and their results, flaws in data collection and study design must be considered before making an inference. Case control studies are most susceptible to bias. There are high chances of selection bias, especially when the investigator is not blinded. Another bias that has the potential to effect results of case control studies is attention bias, which is also known by the Hawthorne effect, according to which people tend to act and behave differently when they know the relation being studied (Bruce et al., 2008). Similarly, cohort studies may produce uncertain results because of their long duration which results in loss to follow up, also known as attrition bias. Questionnaires are considered to be the main research tools when it comes to collection of data from a large sample population. Although questionnaires are an effective and cheap way of gathering data, there are some possible errors that should be taken care of. These specifically include sampling error and measurement error (Bruce et al., 2008). An extremely important factor that can be attributed to the difference in results is confounding. For factors to be considered confounders, they need to have an association with the outcome of interest. Alcohol consumption can be considered a confounding factor in the relationship between stomach cancer and tobacco use. Alcohol consumption is considered to have a synergistic effect (Chen, 2000). However, the synergistic effect of alcohol is considered to be controversial, with some studies demonstrating no effect of alcohol consumption on stomach cancer rates (Murata, 1996; Cancer Research UK, 2014). Another main factor is H.pylori infection, which is the considered to be the main cause of carcinoma of the stomach. Studies have showed that in tobacco users who have H.pylori infection, they are 10 times more likely to develop carcinoma of the stomach than those who do not smoke tobacco (Cancer Research UK, 2014; Tredaniel, 1997). Other possible confounders include diet. Although differences in results can be observed, smoking is known to be an established risk factor for most cancers and diseases. It shall be inappropriate to conclude that no association exists between stomach cancer and the consumption of tobacco. The magnitude of the association can vary but it would be wrong to deny any association at all. It can thus be concluded, that tobacco use, may not be an independent factor like Helicobacter pylori in the aetiology of stomach cancer, but it is a contributing factor for the development of carcinoma of stomach. The use of the word contributory does not by any way rule out the possibility of tobacco having a direct effect on stomach cancer, it in fact, takes into account the persistent risk of cancer among smokers and indicates that had smoking not exist, a large and significant proportion of disease burden would not exist in this world.

E-commerce in Developing Countries

Commerce is the exchange of goods and services for a consideration, commonly money. Thus e-commerce is exchange of goods and services facilitated electronically. For the purpose of this paper we will adopt the broad definition of e-commerce to mean any use of information and communications technology by a business that helps it improve its interactions with a customer or a supplier (Payne E. J 2003). E-commerce uses the internet, telephone and fax. This are all those that allow for business to be conducted in near real time conditions.In advanced countries, e-commerce has led to a boom in Business Processing Operations (B.P. O’s) and Call Centers. While the developing world is gearing itself to catch up to e-commerce, some countries have displayed outstanding achievements; India is worth mentioning in this context.Indeed India’s advancements in e-commerce even rival those in advanced countries, and in some cases, surpass them. Today, maybe as a consequence, India is eme rging as a technological superpower. One crucial benefit that developing countries are envisioning to gain from e-commerce is the expanded market for commodities and services while at the same time eradicating the role played by middle men in traditional distribution chains.For example, in Kenya the mobile phone has helped the farmer many kilometers from major markets access the current prevailing prices thus avoid exploitation by the middlemen. Developing countries are keen to replicate the achievements made by advanced countries together with India in e-commerce. This is with the view of reaping the economic gains that are obvious to all stake holders to date. However certain difficult decisions have to be made in the journey to establishing a vibrant e-commerce sector in these countries.Worth noting is that the infrastructure in the developing world is in dire need of a major upgrade. For example, the internet and the World Wide Web are absolutely vital for the realization of suc cessful e-commerce. The systems in place in majority of the developing world are both costly and far below the expected standards necessary for the implementation of near real time trade. These costly infrastructural improvements will bring about the following: ? Faster connection speeds to the internet to facilitate data transfer.? Clearer and superior voice and sound clarity to enable fulfillment of intra global trade involving conferencing and discussion over the World Wide Web. ? Extremely low operating costs together with higher output capacities which facilitate business profitability and sustainability. This paper is of the view that though e-commerce has high set up costs, major organizational adjustments and infrastructural considerations, developing countries stand to gain massive economic benefits offered by a successful harnessing of the e-commerce sector. Main TextModes of E-commerce There are different modes of e-commerce – Phone, Fax and Internet. Phone e-comme rce happens where the provider of the goods or service communicates with the buyer through a phone. Phones come in various application modes such as satellite phone, mobile phone, telephone etc. Fax e-commerce is where communication between the buyer and seller is done over the fax. Its advantages are in the speed of transactions, the reach available and the lower cost implication compared to face to face conversation or other traditional modes.The Internet and the World Wide Web are the latest major additions to e-commerce and they have brought remarkable solutions in voice and data communications that were erstwhile unimagined. For example, the concept of a twenty four hour mobile office where goods and services are available to all and sundry on the globe in the comfort of ones residence is still strange in many business people in the developing world. Arguments against E-commerce in developing countries. There has been much of the debate on e-commerce especially regarding the ro le played by the internet and the World Wide Web.The major issues raised are listed below: ? Infrastructural cost. ? Change of mindsets to embrace the new forms of technological advancement. The present infrastructure needs major adjustments to enable it support e-commerce. Firstly, energy costs in developing countries are among the highest in the world. Per unit charge in consumption of electricity in the developing countries need to be brought down to levels comparable to those in advanced nations. For this to happen, the systems for power generation need to be upgraded to the latest technologies which tout higher efficiency at extremely low operating and maintenance costs.In addition to this, it has become almost general knowledge that much of the populations in the developing countries do not have access to electricity in the homes. The situation is grave since electricity supply can only be guaranteed in urban centers only, while the majority of the people live in rural areas. Secondly, the technology that supports internet and World Wide Web connections is inferior to those employed in advanced countries. This inferiority is in terms of its weak performance characteristics whereby it is slow and expensive in terms of data exchange, and cannot support a consistent voice dialog over the internet.This is issues can only be rectified with the introduction of the technology available abroad that includes installation of fiber optic cable connection, and inexpensive commercial satellite uplink among other technologies geared towards cutting down the cost of communication while improving performance. Other considerations take the nature and form of those that Pare D. J. (2002) brings to light. The cost of doing business will include, but not confined to network security and regulatory environment.Where as the business in a developed country would comfortably produce goods or services in the standards of the environment it operates in, it is forced to adopt stan dards of the buyer (receiver of the goods and services) who happens to be based in a more advanced country. Problems therefore emerge such as how to remit payments in a secure way, how to confirm that the items selected for purchase are as those displayed over the World Wide Web and other security oriented fears. ARGUMENT FOR E-COMMERCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.Developing countries are faced with surging unemployment levels that cause discontent and saps development gains by straining resources and amenities. These economies have long held the notion that by expanding the sectors in there economy, they will be able to have more participation of its people in viable income generating activities. E-commerce is touted as one such sector that, as evidenced by the Indian success, millions of people can be absorbed in this sector which has positive trickle down effects and sound complementarities with other existing sectors in the economy.In addition, a positive labour diffusion process wi ll arise were by now-skilled laborers from developing countries migrate to advanced countries to get jobs that promise higher wages. It has been found that these nationals are responsible for shipping large amounts of foreign currency back home to assist there relatives. This foreign income is enables these countries to improve there balance of payments, hence accelerating development. A case in point is the dynamic tertiary sector in India that is spurred by the computer technology industry.India has remarkable strength in software development, which employs a large number of Indian technocrats. In fact, India produces such a large number of skilled personnel that major multi national firms in IT set up base in India. The dynamics here are that the large number of skilled labor concentrated in one area pushes down wages as competition for employment thrives. Due to these dynamics, India has at its disposal an abundance of relatively less expensive and highly learned work force.Ther e is, as a consequence, a high population of Asians of Indian origin fulfilling duties in the IT sectors of major world powers, including the United States of America and Great Britain. This export of human labor accounts for a significant amount of foreign currency transfer back home. I agree with (Humphrey J. et. al) when he argues that e-commerce will create a new culture. By embracing the way the world wants things done, developed countries will by extension be taking the initiative in creating home grown solutions to global problems, thus providing unique solutions that are customized to suit local contexts.This will create anew breed of workers unique to the developing countries. It is thus clear that where as e-commerce will be pretty expensive to embrace in the short term. In the long run however, the benefits accruing easily outweigh the costs. By embracing e-commerce the developing countries will be killing two birds with the same stone; generating economic growth and expa nsion by providing the necessary infrastructure and creating a new economy and culture for the learned in the country.Added to this is the bonus of providing a bigger market for its entrepreneurs, and a break away from the well known reliance that developing countries’ economies have in there primary and secondary sectors. THE KENYAN CASE In Kenya, the pioneer company in e-commerce is Kencall Ltd. Its basic vision is to lead the way in outsourcing business [Kencall. com]. Being the first major outsourcing company in Kenya, it was faced with a myriad of problems. Some of these problems are listed below: ? Lack of a pool of experienced labor force as is the case in India and South Africa.? Attempting to change local mindsets with its new concept, largely unknown in that part of the world. Where as BPO was already been taken to developing countries namely India and South Africa this was still a very strange idea in Kenya. ? Expensive telecommunication infrastructures, coupled wi th slow reforms in the Kenyan communications sector to enable it adjust to global developments. There was need for fast internet uplink to allow for real time transfer of data and voice to the clients. This particular problem was not easy to overcome.With the gateway controlled by the government and operating on obsolete technology with a knack for breaking down. It was another eighteen months before Internet gateways were liberalized and the company could now get good speeds courtesy of dedicated satellite uplinks. ? Under performance of the Kenyan economy coupled with a less than friendly relationship atmosphere that existed between Kenya and its development partners. Although this situation was improving, the pace was slow as the government pledged top implement much needed reforms in government.These altogether impacts negatively on investments and industry expansion. ? An unstable political climate in Kenya that was characterized by an over politicized climate. This has the eff ect of shifting concentration from economic growth and development issues to politics. With the implementation of certain reform pledges that led to restored confidence between Kenya and its development partners, there came a turn around in the Kenyan economy. It started to grow. The industry specific results were a marked expansion in investment, higher employment and an increase in per capita incomes.In addition there was a wider pool of returning graduates from developed countries who knew what BPO was all about. They came with much needed know how and information on the role of e-commerce in development. These included the directors of Kencall Ltd, in particular Mr. Nick Nesbitt [Kencall. com]. His contribution to the Kenyan economy has led him to be recognized by the government in through an honorary award bestowed to him by the president of the republic. With the realization by the government that in e-commerce lay a ‘goldmine’ [kencall.com], they sought to exploi t it by first laying a fiber optic cable all around Nairobi. By connecting to this the speeds were greatly enhanced although the costs still remain high. To reduce cost the government sought to lay an underground fiber optic cable. With partnership of Southern African countries they wanted to have the cable running from Cape Town to Somali. Politics has put this noble idea in the back burner. The Kenyan government on its part has chosen to go it alone, as it recognizes the importance of e-commerce. Plans are already at an advance stage to have a cable between Mombasa and Fujaira in Oman.In anticipation of this, a fibre optic cable has already been laid between Nairobi and Mombasa with the rest of the nation in the pipeline. All this has lead to a proliferation of BPO providers. Skyweb and Pacis have already joined into the fray. Smaller firms are doing the same but on a small scale. On Wed 11th July, Skyweb launched into the market a solution that allows a firm offer BPO on the stre ngth of only 5 computers. Expect in the next year to be a growth in this area. Safaricom, the biggest mobile phone operator has thrown a challenge to BPO providers.To show they can handle around 100,000 calls a day while maintaining quality and they will be given the account. This is a challenge to be taken seriously if e-commerce is to grow to match if not pass the pioneers like India and China. Due to the time difference, while other one part of the world sleeping the other is in the middle of a trading day, while another is waking up. There is need for a 24 hr approach to e-commerce in order to take advantage of all situations arising. Kencall has overcome this by operating on 8hr shifts for 24 hrs. This has been made possible by the good security provided by the government.Kencall Ltd [Daily Nation (2007)] has grown from an initial work force of 20 members to the present over 300 staff. The have also had to move location to a more spacious building where growth is possible. The amount of work handled ahs also grown six fold. This has led to Kenya been recognized as an upcoming force in e-commerce. By extension businesses in Developed countries feel comfortable when dealing with Kencall since they have the capacity to deliver. With the technological strides, Kencall can with a degree of certainty claim to be in a position to guarantee the integrity of its business partner’s information.In addition, Ken call has with itself the unique opportunity of spinning itself into and e-hub provider. With its wealth of experience, it can mitigate high turnover by providing training to would be e-commerce players. This way it will eliminate the need for people to seek employment only for them to quit after six to twelve months once they are trained and have an understanding of e-commerce and by extension BPO. CONCLUSION: Pare D. J 2003 is of the opinion that the mere bringing of total strangers together in an online environment will not necessarily reduce overall transactional cost to achieve long-term economic gains.This paper has tried to disprove this by clearly showing that the opposite is true. By improvement of the working environment, the long term economic gain is clear for any to see. The fibre optic link currently being enjoyed by all not only Kencall Ltd. More effective security is but one of the major achievements being enjoyed by Kenyans. On their part Kencall Ltd is reaping the fruits of persistence. They are defining the parameters in e-commerce simply because they have been longer in the game on the Kenyan context.Any new entrant will have to start form a point of disadvantage as compared to Kencall at present. With the present business environment where businesses are looking to outsource labour intensive operations, Kencall stands at an advantage. In addition, with all the people trained by Kencall, Kenya is at an advantageous position to exploit new business in e-commerce. The completion of the fibre optic link will great ly enhance this. Not only will the cost of doing business come down, it will also enable Kenya position itself as the regional hub of e-commerce.The reference point to all who desire to enter into this business – this will be all who know what is geed for them. The local producers now have the whole world open to them. The floriculture industry is a good example of successful exploitation of e-commerce in sourcing markets. It has taken only a decade for Kenya to command a healthy 30% of cut flowers sold in the world. This growth and success can be replicated in other areas. For example the floriculture industry is faced with rapid expansion problems and it is investing in technology from Israel and other countries leading in floriculture to fulfill this needs.Kenya can turn the big swaths of land on the northern part of Kenya to be great producers of horticulture as the global demand in Kenyan cut flowers increases, albeit stimulated by the easy access to market information f acilitated by e-commerce. Hence a concerted effort involving both the citizens and the government is needed to enhance awareness and accelerate infrastructure provision to enhance the benefits of e-commerce in providing remarkable industry specific economic solutions. As Annan K. rightly put it, e-commerce is the most visible example to how ICT can contribute to economic growth.By improving trading efficiency and helping developing countries integrate into the world economy. Allowing entrepreneurs to compete more create more jobs and by extension create more wealth. REFERENCE: Payne, Judith E. [2003]. E-Commerce readiness for SME’s in developing Countries: A guide for development professionals. Pare, Daniel J. [2003]. Does this site deliver? B2B E-Commerce services for developing countries: Humphrey, J. Mansell, R. Pare, and D Schmitz, H. [2003] . The reality of E-Commerce in developing countries: Does e-commerce provide developing country businesses with easy access to globa l markets?Annan, K [2003]. UNCTAD Secretariat, E -Commerce and Development Report 2003, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations, New York and Geneva. (In Forward). Okuttah. M. Outsourcing: The latent goldmine: http://www. kencall. com/goldmine. htm OTHER SOURCES http://www1. worldbank. org/devoutreach/spring00/article. asp? id=79 E-commerce for Developing Countries: Expectations and Reality, Volume 35, Number 1, 1 January 2004 , pp. 31-39(9) http://learnlink. aed. org/Publications/Concept_Papers/ecommerce_readiness. pdf

Offensive Speech Should be Allowed Essay - 2753 Words

There seems to be an internal desire for freedom within the soul of every man. Men realize that freedom is something basic, and to rob a man of his freedom is to take from him the essential basis of his manhood. The words of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., spoken forty-three years ago, capture the spirit of the American dream. Since its conception, the United States of America has been the universal symbol for freedom and hope. The five most fundamental freedoms cherished by every citizen are granted in the First Amendment to the Constitution. Among them, Americans treasure the right to freedom of speech above all others. Yet, as we stand here in the birth of a new millennium, this right has become endangered. College campuses across the†¦show more content†¦The First Amendment to the Constitution states: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Still, few agree on the extent to which the amendment protects speech. John F. Kennedy gave perhaps the greatest re sponse to Constitutional debates. He wrote, The Constitution was not a collection of loosely given political promises subject to broad interpretation. It was not a list of pleasing platitudes to be set lightly aside when expediency required it. It was the foundation of the American system of law and justice (237). It is the basis for every other law in America. Why should we allow this issue to infringe on our pursuit of liberty? No concrete definition of hate speech exists in our society. Case after case has come before the Supreme Court, questioning the breadth of the amendment in extreme cases. The Court has ruled that there are two exceptions to the right to free speech: in Chaplinsky vs. New Hampshire, fighting words, or specific conduct that provokes retaliation, were declared exempt from first amendment protection; the Court also excludes incidents involving group defamation, or harming the reputation of a group of people (Gates 184).Show MoreRelatedSpeech On The Bill Of Rights1153 Words   |  5 Pagesof speech, or of the press† (Alderman and Kennedy, pg.21). Because of the First Amendment, hate speech, â€Å"no matter how offensive its content†, was â€Å"protected† under the laws (ACLZ). However, people are still demanding more. They want hate-related speech to be allowed on campuses –without knowing the effects and the damage it could do. 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Freedom of speech is briefly hallmark of democracy because democracy is based on independent thoughts of people. In a democratic society people are allowed to express their views freely and peacefully. There will be no democracy if freedom of speech isnt granted to people. Where there is freedom of speech, new ideas andRead MorePersuasive Speech On Free Speech Rights1181 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Students and their right to free speech have been debated for decades. Public schools have been challenged on many occasions for denying students their First Amendment right. Over the years the courts have ruled in favor of students and school districts. Outcomes of these rulings have varied according to the nature and extent of the student speech in question. This paper will discuss different interpretations of free speech rights for students under the Constitution’s First Amendment

A Country Study on the Ancient Cultures of Japan

On the basis of archaeological finds, it has been postulated that hominid activity in Japan may date as early as 200,000 B.C. when the islands were connected to the Asian mainland. Although some scholars doubt this early date for habitation, most agree that by around 40,000 B.C. glaciation had reconnected the islands with the mainland. Populating the Land of Japan Based on archaeological evidence, they also agree that by between 35,000 and 30,000 B.C. Homo sapiens had migrated to the islands from eastern and southeastern Asia and had well-established patterns of hunting and gathering and stone toolmaking. Stone tools, inhabitation sites, and human fossils from this period have been found throughout all the islands of Japan. The Jomon Period More stable living patterns gave rise by around 10,000 B.C. to Neolithic  or, as some scholars argue, Mesolithic culture. Possibly distant ancestors of the Ainu aboriginal people of modern Japan, members of the heterogeneous Jomon culture (ca. 10,000-300 B.C.) left the clearest archaeological record. By 3,000 B.C., the Jomon people were making clay figures and vessels decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jomon means patterns of plaited cord) with growing sophistication. These people also used chipped stone tools, traps, and bows and were hunters, gatherers, and skillful coastal and deep-water fishermen. They practiced a rudimentary form of agriculture and lived in caves and later in groups of either temporary shallow pit dwellings or above-ground houses, leaving rich kitchen middens for modern anthropological study. By the late Jomon period, a dramatic shift had taken place according to archaeological studies. Incipient cultivation had evolved into sophisticated rice-paddy farming and government control. Many other elements of Japanese culture also may date from this period and reflect a mingled migration from the northern Asian continent and the southern Pacific areas. Among these elements are Shinto mythology, marriage customs, architectural styles, and technological developments, such as lacquerware, textiles, metalworking, and glassmaking. The Yayoi Period The next cultural period, the Yayoi (named after the section of Tokyo where archaeological investigations uncovered its traces) flourished between about 300 B.C. and A.D. 250 from southern Kyushu to northern Honshu. The earliest of these people, who are thought to have migrated from Korea to northern Kyushu and intermixed with the Jomon, also used chipped stone tools. Although the pottery of the Yayoi was more technologically advanced, it was more simply decorated than Jomon ware. The Yayoi made bronze ceremonial nonfunctional bells, mirrors, and weapons and, by the first century A.D., iron agricultural tools and weapons. As the population increased and society became more complex, they wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through land ownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes. Their irrigated, wet-rice culture was similar to that of central and south China, requiring heavy inputs of human labor, which led to the development and eventual growth of a highly sedentary, agrarian society. Unlike China, which had to undertake massive public works and water-control projects, leading to a highly centralized government, Japan had abundant water. In Japan, then, local political and social developments were relatively more important than the activities of the central authority and a stratified society. The earliest written records about Japan are from Chinese sources from this period. Wa (the Japanese pronunciation of an early Chinese name for Japan) was first mentioned in A.D. 57. Early Chinese historians described Wa as a land of hundreds of scattered tribal communities, not the unified land with a 700-year tradition as laid out in the Nihongi, which puts the foundation of Japan at 660 B.C. Third-century Chinese sources reported that the Wa people lived on raw vegetables, rice, and fish served on bamboo and wooden trays, had vassal-master relations, collected taxes, had provincial granaries and markets, clapped their hands in worship (something still done in Shinto shrines), had violent succession struggles, built earthen grave mounds, and observed mourning. Himiko, a female ruler of an early political federation known as Yamatai, flourished during the third century. While Himiko reigned as a spiritual leader, her younger brother carried out affairs of state, which included diplomatic relations with the court of the  Chinese Wei Dynasty  (A.D. 220 to 65).

Book Review of The Return of Martin Guerre Essay

In The Return of Martin Guerre, one mans impersonation of an heir from an influential peasant family in the French village of Artigat ultimately leads to his public execution. The tale of Arnaud du Tilh alias Pansette (meaning the belly) is full of ironies, not the least of which is his death at the hands of a man who by some accounts harbored some admiration for the quick-witted peasant. Set in a time and place where a hardly discernible line separated proper behavior from that which was grounds for death, du Tilh was guilty of more than one serious charge. Yet he was well-known as a strong farmer, loving husband, shrewd rural-merchant, and eloquent speaker. Arnauds actions are not the result of his own audacity, rather of†¦show more content†¦Du Tilh knew he had the intelligence to pull it off, and his old life was not holding him back. There are a few plausible reasons as to why Arnaud wanted a new identity, but why did he go as far as he did in his impersonation? For one, Guerres inheritance was larger, but did he happen to know that when his role began? What started for du Tilh as a simple act of cleverness evolved into an elaborate charade, a chance to start an entirely new life. Du Tilh didnt only want money, he wanted a fresh start, a chance to put his skills to good use and force a path for himself. Pansette was moving beyond the mask of the carnival player and the stratagems of the mere inheritance seeker to forge a new identity and a new life for himself in the village on the Leze. The thought of a family, as well as a decent inheritance must have sounded good to the peasant from Sajas. However, the thought of duping an entire village must have been even more tempting to the prankster Pansette. During his trial at Toulouse, his suspicion of conjuring spirits to aid his deception came to the fore. The acc used seemed to have an air of magic about him. Trying to take him off guard, President de Mansencal asked him how he had invoked the evil spirit that taught him so much about the people of Artigat. Coras said he paled and for once hesitated... This reaction, I think, may have resulted not only from the defendants sense of danger, but also from angerShow MoreRelatedThe Return Of Martin Guerre1046 Words   |  5 PagesBook Review: The Return of Martin Guerre In the book â€Å"The Return of Martin Guerre† by Natalie Zemon Davis it tells a story about a time in 1560 when a man named of Martin Guerre was impostered by a man named Arnaud Du Tilh. As an infant Martin’s father moved his family to the small town along the French and Spain board name Artigat. In his early teenage years while living here Martin marries a young lady named Bertrande. After being married for several years Bertrande became pregnant and had theirRead MoreMetz Film Language a Semiotics of the Cinema PDF100902 Words   |  316 PagesSignifying statements should be semenes (p. 26). I have not found an English equivalent for mise en grilles, which refers to a gridlike breakdown of linguistic units and which Taylor translates by pigeon-holing (p. 35). 1990 Preface This book is divided into four sections, and it groups ten chapters corresponding to twelve previously published articles. The disparity between ten and twelve is caused by the fact that Chapter 5 was condensed out of three separate articles. As the title indicatesRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesinternational terrorism, which were powerfully symptomatic of the unprecedented reach and intensity of the processes of globalization on either side of the otherwise unremarkable last and first years of the old and new millennia, represented both a return to trends reminiscent of the opening decades of the twentieth century and a major break from the prevailing dynamics of the cold war. In addition to the problems posed for conceptualizing the twentieth century as a discrete era of world history due

Atmosphere Compasrion Jc Penney vs Kohl’s Free Essays

Atmosphere Comparison The two stores’ atmospheres that I will compare in this paper will be J. C. Penney and Kohl’s. We will write a custom essay sample on Atmosphere Compasrion: Jc Penney vs Kohl’s or any similar topic only for you Order Now Both stores are very similar in every aspect. They are both retailers that offer a variety of goods, such as apparel, shoes, and accessories for women, children and men, and home products such as small electronics, kitchen electrics, electric shavers, toothbrushes, vacuums ; floor care, bedding, toys, and luggage. Basically anything you would ever need to survive except for food is offered at both of these retailers. As I pulled into J. C. Penney’s parking lot, I found it very convenient in terms of how far the parking spots were from the doors of the store. When I walked in, the first thing I noticed was the nice marble flooring of the store, then I looked up and noticed 3 different racks of flyers with coupons in them. While I wandered the store I noticed that the lighting was bright and vibrant. There was a very nice perfume/cologne aroma coming from the lease department of Sephora. The music that was playing was Christmas jingles, because it is already that time of year. I felt toasty as I looked through the merchandise; the temperature of the store was definitely comfortable. I noticed that J. C. Penney featured some not so recognized brand merchandise such as â€Å"American Living† brand, which is developed by Ralph Lauren. When I pulled into the Kohl’s parking lot, I felt the convenience was the same as J. C. Penney’s lot. Once I got into Kohl’s, I noticed that they did not offer a rack of flyers, but that they had their registers near the doors of the store. The lighting in Kohl’s was definitely not as bright and inviting as it was in J. C. Penney. My nasal passage was not really stimulated in Kohl’s; I feel that’s because of a lack of a cosmetics department. The music being played was obviously Christmas jingles due to the season. The temperature of Kohl’s did not make me feel as comfortable as I felt in J. C. Penney. Kohl’s does not offer any leased departments like the other store does. The biggest plus side about Kohl’s was the fact that they feature nationally recognized brand-name merchandise such as Levis, Dockers, and Columbia Sportswear. Also, they offer exclusive labels and private-branded goods as well. All in all I felt like both of these stores were virtually identical in every aspect. There are minor distinctions that differentiate both of these stores but at the end of the day they are both still retailers selling the same types of products. How to cite Atmosphere Compasrion: Jc Penney vs Kohl’s, Papers

Foundations of Professional Airmanship †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Foundations of Professional Airmanship. Answer: Introduction There is three major power generation in the aircraft which aid in the effective movements and operations of the aircraft. These methods of power generation include the electrical power generation, mechanical power generation and lastly mechanical power generation. In this section, we shall focus on the different properties of each one which makes it realize its generation quality. These three methods of power generations cannot be substituted by either since the power they generated are not the same. For example, electrical generation gives the power which can be used in lighting, mechanical gives the power which can exclusively apply in rotating moving part. The methods above of power generation can be used in conjunction to form one big generation system but most cases there are used differently. In aircraft, fluid is highly applied to help generate power which is used in the plane for a different function. The fluid power is used when the plane is landing and also during the movement of the aircraft. The below are some of the characteristics of power generated by fluid, or hydraulic, the fluid used in the aircraft is usually brake fluid, water-glycol mixture or water soluble oil[1]. Hydraulic is supplied to the motor which is then converted into a mechanical output used to perform a specific duty of work on load or even to rotate the turbine for some cases which are used to rotate the rotor part. The fluid power system is more flexible than the other due methods of power generation, and it can create more than such system of the [i]equivalent size. This method of power generation also give a rapid and accurate responses to the controls. For this reason, fluid power systems are extensively used in present aircraft. However, electrical power generation is lighter because of the lighter cables used but still in fluid the ratio of the power to weight for an electrical power system is much lower than fluid actuators[2]. Some special types of actuators known as the conventional linear Actuators (CLA) and some smart fluid sensing actuators which help in sensing and controlling the fluid valve to improve the performance. The efficacy of pump applied in the fluid is very high since it is only driven when the actuation is needed Electro Hydraulic Actuator are in a range of aircraft which comprises the flight control operation surface actuation[3]. Electro Mechanical Actuators also provides the aptitude to stimulate onto the electrical bus, though it is not presently permitted. So in the methods above of power generation used in the aircraft, fluid power generation employs mostly the use of flowing liquid to help rotate parts including the turbine which helps to create power. This makes the backbone characteristic of fluid power generation and fundamental of the operation of the fluid power generation. This method of generation system employs a lot of pressure pump which helps to push the fluid to the required destination. For the fluid generations, the path by which the fluid will flow is made very narrow to make the fluid flow at a high rate hence the speed will also increase. The fluid power in aircraft is applied in many parts in the aircraft like in fuels systems and breaking systems. These characteristics are very clear and highlighted as below; The actuators are what do the final work of the fluid power; the system components are grippers, rotary actuators, and cylinder. Pumping machine that is a pumping device or an air compressor which is responsible for providing the fluid power into the entire fluid system. Sustain mechanisms that guarantee the fluid power is effectively used; the different components are the reservoirs, filters, and heat exchangers. Valves which manages the movement of the pressure and fluid flow in the whole system. The fluid powering system is mainly composed of the fluid which moves in the system and the valves and the pumps which pump the fluid through the pipes. The system also operates at a higher pressure to ensure that the fluid is effectively moving to reduce the obstacles like the gravity. Electrical Method Of Power Generation Electrical power in the aircraft is due to many parameters which make it true and fully realized in its generation. It generation becomes a reality because of the inventions of the Michael Faraday which also has a law of the cutting of the magnetic flux with a conductor or vice versa. When either magnetic flux is cut using conductors the electricity is induced and also if the conductor cuts the magnetic flux the voltage is induced. This voltage can either be stepped up or down. From the basic operation of electricity, we can thus get the nature of the electrical power which help in the comparison with others. The generation is by the alternators or generators which give an AC, but this form of electricity can be as well be converted to a DC by the help of a diode. The alternating or generators generates electrical power for performing the operations in the aircraft avionics equipment. This generator can use the mechanical power from the rotating rotors, slip rods, armature to help generate electrical power which will be applied in the aircraft for different operations like lighting, avionics among others. Some of the conspicuous characteristics of the electrical power include the following; Electrical power include the voltage controlling parts which may include the transistors like the MOSFET, BJT AC power is generated from a generator which has a rotor consisting of the moving parts of the generator like the armature and the stator which consist of the immobile parts like the field windings which develops an electromagnet which is also temporary magnet The alternating current generators have the rotor or the generator field which primarily functions as a rotating magnetic field thereby providing some constant polarity. The electrical power generated will be operating at a specific frequency depending on how the production took place (nature of the generator like the number of poles used during the generation of electricity). The alternating current generators also control the voltage by regulating the strength of the magnetic field during production. The strength of the magnet is made possible by varying the flux which is proportional to the field current. And once the field current is varied then the voltage produced is also varied. The AC electrical power generated is also stepped up or down depending on what is required. The stepping up and down is done by the help of a transformer. Electrical power is always produced in AC form for the aircraft but not that in all situations the power is used in this format. Some case it is used in DC form, so the power is rectified by the help of diode. These diodes can build it make either a full wave rectifier or a single wave rectifier. All components in mechanical power generation are a solid state which just rotates hence their power efficiency is relatively high because power losses are reduced. Electrical power exclusively uses electrical devices like inductors, diodes and some case we can use thyristors- Diac and Triac which are used in power electronic in the generation and transmission of electric power in the aircraft. In all the above methods of power generation, it is the movement of particles is common, in the fluid it is the fluid which moves at high speed to create a high pressure required in the aircraft. In electrical power generation, the movement involves the movement of electrons which help creates the flow of electric current. While in mechanical power the movement involves the movement of the rotating machines and the reciprocating movement in parts like in the cylinder. The main components of mechanical power generation include the power transmission which is done by the help of drives, gear belts, pulleys, chains among other ways of transmitting power. The mechanical power at different torque can be used to produce electrical energy like turbines used to generate electricity. Sometimes the mechanical generation of power can just generate motion which is used to operate some moving parts. Mechanical power generation is very important since the generated by this method is very great and can perform very heavy duties. Sometimes flywheel which is mechanical is used to operate when the electrical power is switched of just because of the momentum. In the design of the hydraulic power there are some factors which must be considered. In the tube sizing we have three different forms return lines, pressure line, and pump suction line. The power generated is a factor of the pressure and the size of the tube. This is higher controlled by the Bernoullis principle. And when the pressure is so high a thick tube is required to ensure that the tube does not burst, this provides a great safety during the operation of the aircraft. System pressure and return lines The selection of tubing size for return line and pressure highly depends on high analysis which is pegged on energy loss on energy loss against cost and the weight of the components as well. Larger tubes will transmit fluid at a low pressure while smaller tube will transmit fluid at a higher pressure and the tubes must be very thick (weigh more) hence they are costly. Generally, tubes must be relatively large in all design considerations. With relatively large tubes harmful dynamic pressures due to high fluid velocities are avoided. The below figure shows a prototype of hydraulic system pressure cycle. During the operation of actuator loads, rate and aircraft, the temperature must be defined in the design. Allowable pressure losses at different pressure losses and the working temperature of the system must be determined as well. The tube lengths for installation and tube size needed in the aircraft must thus be calculated from the above requirements. The specification and calculation in this design is done mainly by considering the usage of the below Darcy-Weisbach equation; This formula can be reduced to these different forms; Where: F= friction factor (no dimension) L= length of the tube given in feet. Q=Fluid flow rate (gallon per min). S= Fluid specific gravity P= pressure loss (pound per square inch) The value of f changes as the function 0of Reynold number The below equations shows the relationship between Reynold number and friction factor for both turbulent and laminar flow. For laminar flow For turbulent flow: Reynold number NR is a dimensionless which can be as well expressed as below; When the rate of fluid flow (Q) is substituted for velocity (v) and specific gravity ( s) for mass density, the outcome is the following equations. For a straight tubing , laminar flow will be predominant for values of NR of about 1400 and then becomes fully turbulent beyond 3600. In normal operation temperatures, high flow will require aircraft hydraulic system which will result in turbulent flow. The friction factors of turbulent and laminar flow can be obtained from the below equations. The following equations can be employed to calculate the change in the size of tubing diameters which are needed to convert an existing fluid system for use with a CITE fluid. From the above equations, we can obtain the hydraulic power; these equation analyses help us to know the friction losses in each pipe which convey the fluid. After determining these parameters, we will hence pass the fluid to the turbine which will be used to rotate the turbine and generate the motion. The size of the turbine will depend on the load to driven and the fluid pressure from the pipes containing the fluid. The turbines must be fully be constructed in an enclosed system with a highly thick and strong structure to ensure that there is no bursting of the pipes or breakage of the system which may cause an accident during the operation in the generation of hydraulic power. Hydralic Servo System Choosing the correct servo/actuator system for good working of large aircraft control surfaces. Actuators system performs an important role in the control of flight surfaces in aircraft because of their workings assurances the safety of the aircraft and all the passengers on the flight. Safety is very important in the aircraft(john, 2014). The actuators convert electrical signals into mechanical motions of various aircraft parts. The Actuators systems are applied to the landing gear, flaps or the weapon systems for military aircraft, among others. In large aircraft which would possibly contain so many passengers or goods, selecting the best choose the best actuators to ensure that the control for such big and heavy aircraft is fully controlled by that actuator(Russell, 2001). The actuator must consider the below parameters like small size thus diminishing the aircraft's weight and bulk which make sit light hence it will become very easy to control by the help of the actuators. It should resist high vibrations while getting high dynamic forces. Furthermore, the actuator system must contain valves that are mostly vital during the time of emergencies as they interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid. Lastly, the system develops a minor inertia at a high acceleration of the aircraft There are several of actuators which consist the hydraulic actuators and electric actuators with the hydrostatic transmission of power; hydraulic actuators uses the fluid which electrical uses electricity for the control(Sheehan, 2016). A good actuator system for the landing gear is a twofold actuator that combines both the type above (electric actuator and the hydraulic actuator). This is true since there will ensure redundancy. The application of the two aforementioned are in most cases used as a combination, but when electric actuators are used alone, they lack the valves thus it may not quite be very effective during emergencies. For big aircraft airspeeds during landing must be maintained notwithstanding the wings being not designed to allow this, so there is a quick need for better actuators the need for a good actuator system. The wings of large aircraft are always unable to develop a suitable amount of lift to make the aircraft balances in the air before landing. Therefore, the forgone actuator to counter applies to retractable flap actuators. The actuators in the most scenario are placed outside the aircraft around the wings, but for a few, they are put inside around the wings. The servo valves have some of features like; lands and port number this can either be a three port or a two port, but in this article, I have chosen to use a three port, these valves also have valve sleeves. These sleeves must be correctly fitted with a well-matched pressure inside and outside the pipe.Servo valves also have dynamic pressure feedback is applicable as at low frequencies it works as position feedback. There are some parameters which always define a working of actuators in most systems. These parameters may judge if an actuator is effective or not, and these parameters are what make them be advantageous actuator some of these parameters include the following: Ultra low power consumption Electro-hydraulic actuator contains fitting of a low power position controller. This makes the actuator to work effectively on a low power consumption. High operating speed- The electro-hydraulic actuators have a great speed of moving a heavy load within a very short time, for example, these actuators can move a thrust of about 900kg within a distance of 60 mm in a very short period of just forty-five millisecond. This high-speed make these EHA more effective than electro mechanical actuators. Precision: EHA is more accurate since most of the fluid used are incompressible, so the loss is highly reduced. They work up to about 5 microns. This gives more accurate operations than the electro mechanical where losses are many due to frictions. But still, this actuator faces some drawbacks which make it not to reach hundred percentage effective operation. These drawbacks include allowable tolerance which will lead to higher cost of hydraulic components used in the construction of the system another drawback is that with the use of hydraulic fluid, there is a upper-temperature limit imposed. This temperature limit must be kept since if it is exceeded, then the system will not work effectively. Conclusion In conclusion, there are three major methods of power generation in aircraft, all these help in the provision of power used in different parts, these methods like electrical are always used to power the engine of the aircraft and also to provide the lighting in the aircraft. The fluid method uses mainly fluid and the pump which makes it move in a very narrow pipes to help increase the pressure of the fluid. The power in the fluid is majorly used in the braking system and fueling(A., 2012). The electrohydraulic systems have high efficiency. The efficiency is applicable in the conversion of electrical energy into useful work[4]. The conversion is done to become a linear thrust output or a torque output with high flexibility. The electro-hydraulic systems can be made from a huge range of components evident for actuator formation. Therefore a range of equipment easily meet the standard needed and the special applications. The design of the power distribution in aircraft is very strategic and is treated with great care to ensure that any fault which may result in an accident which may be fatal is avoided at the source. The operation of the electro-hydraulic actuators gives the best working system of a high-speed, more accurate. And these are realized because of the nature of the fluid is in most cases used in the operations. References A., D. (2012). Training and Instruction. Hull: McGraw-Hill Professional. Billings, C. E. (2012). Aviation automation: the search for a human-centered approach. New Jasey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Ean, N. (2013). Rotary Wing Flight. New York: Aviation Supplies Academics. Helmreich, R. L. (2012). Crew Resource Management. Delhi: Academic Press. John, C. (2Conclusion014). Blast Damage to Air Cleaning Devices (Filter Tests). Tokyo: Western Press. John, P. (2015). Air Carrier Operations. Chicago: Aviation Supplies Academics. John, T. (2015). Foundations of Professional Airmanship and Flight Discipline. Chicago: Convergent Performance, LLC. Machado, R. (2015). Rod Machado's Instrument Pilot's Handbook. London: Aviation Speakers Bureau. Mchapakuni, T. (2011). Flight Discipline. London: McGraw-Hill Professional. Nagel, D. C. (2015). Human Factors in Aviation. Beijing: Gulf Professional Publishing. Owen, D. (2016). The Risk Management Handbook in Aviation. Hull: Kogan Page. Perrow, C. (2011). Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies. Chicago: Princeton University Press. Robert Buck, R. O. (2012). Weather Flying, Fifth Edition. Washington DC: McGraw-Hill Professional. Ruppert, M. C. (2013). The Decline of the American Aviation. Amsterdam: New Society Publishers. Saijohn. (2013). Aircraft command techniques: gaining leadership skills to fly the left seat. Delhi: Ashgate.