Monday, September 30, 2019

Cowgirl Chocolates Essay

Marilyn Lysohir and her husband, Ross Coates started Cowgirl Chocolates located on 3rd street in Moscow, Idaho in 1997. Cowgirl Chocolates offered hot and spicy creations in three basic forms: individually wrapped truffles, chocolate bars, and a hot caramel dessert sauce and provided various packaging offers such as gift boxes, collectible tins, plain plastic bags or gold wrappers. Truffles were available in plain chocolate, mint, orange, lime tequila, and espresso and the chocolate bars were available in orange espresso or lime tequila crunch. Despite not paying herself a salary and occasionally bartering her art for services, the small business’s revenues of $30,000 did not come close to covering her $50,000+ in expenses. She just was not sure how to turn her award winning products into a profitable business (Peter/Donnelly, Jr. , pp. 488-491). The following paragraphs are discussion on the relative merits of using a cost-based, demand-based, and competition-based pricing method in reference to Cowgirl Chocolates. Cost-based pricing is a certain amount of everything within the business industry. When deciding on the price of products, a company must first calculate the cost expenses of the production of the items or services. Demand-based pricing represents pricing products by demand flow. When products are in demand then the price of the items can be increased safely. But, if the demand is low then you have to be methodical in your price increase strategy. So it is beneficial to create alternative products just in case is extremely necessary. Demand based pricing is a policy that sets the price of a product according to the perceived amount that customers are willing to pay, rather than according to the production cost (Encarta, 2009). Competition Based pricing compares products in the market to your products and distinguishes whether those products have an advantage over your current products. Four options that Cowgirl Chocolates could consider as far as pricing may be price lining, promotional pricing, premium pricing and demand-based pricing. I would utilize demand based pricing which is a policy that sets the price of a product according to the perceived amount that customers are willing to pay, rather than according to the production cost (Encarta, 2009). It must be recognized also that the effect on profit will be a factor; there may be several factors other than profit influencing the selling price decision. Even taking an iterative approach, it may be unrealistic to expect single demand estimates to be made. Sales demand forecasting is difficult and a range of demand possibilities at each possible selling price may be used to guide management decision making (Coulthurst, 2002). Although I am not usually a chocolate eater, I do have a few recommendations that might have helped Marilyn in her time of decision: †¢ New Market Prospect: Marilyn may want to contact her mentor atâ€Å"Daffins Chocolates† in Sharon, Pennsylvania. She could send him/her a sample of each â€Å"Cowgirl Chocolate† product and ask her mentor’s opinion; if they like the product, then she could ask them if they would be willing to allow her shelf space to market her product. She could capture wholesale and a portion of the retail dollars to dump back into her business. †¢ Repackaging: I originally was going to recommended that she eliminate the multiple colors for the packaging of her products due to the cost but after looking at her website the colors are quite eye catching. I would tell her to capture more capital for her business she should concentrate on the website she has and market that a bit more. The website is more personable and only cost $25. 00 a month and was a third of her product sales; she would also capture the wholesale and retail dollars. Lastly, not everyone likes hot and spicy products so her decision to make a â€Å"mild† line is a great decision and will help her expand her customer base. †¢ Spicy vs. Mild: Cowgirl Chocolates is focused on promoting spicy chocolates, but realistically it should concentrate on a different variety as a back-up plan in the event that demand is low for the spicy version. For Cowgirl Chocolates, most competition in the industry comes from the businesses producing sweet chocolates. Cowgirl Chocolates may have an advantage on packaging and possibly taste for the spicy chocolates but does not have an advantage on sweet chocolates. †¢ Utilize Inventory Wisely: Marilyn needs to cut the labels that she currently has in inventory to fit the tin modifications. She already has $7000 in extra packaging & labels on hand, it is not wise to dump more money into new labels that will cost $395 for a plate/printing die plus $152 for the new labels to be printed. She could offer packaging product in the gift boxes purchased 3 years ago, possibly charging $1. 00 extra to try and capture the $9000 expense. This way at least she can recuperate something for inventory that has proven to be a very bad investment. †¢ Ingredients: They could balance the elements that are contributing to the production costs of the chocolates and then they could balance out with their competitions. This way the company would be able to increase market demand and therefore expect an increase in profit sales as well. For the Cowgirl Chocolates, coming up with a cost-based price would mean decreasing some expenses by modifying packaging or possibly modifying their recipes and/or chocolate ingredients they use. I researched â€Å"Cowgirl Chocolates† and found that they have a great selection; they sell tens of thousands of chocolate a year and double their sales every year. The ingredients stand alone on their own and the sauces are used by several restaurants to cook with. To her credit Marilyn has won two awards in 2010 for her chocolates. The internet and word of mouth keep her business flowing, she receives orders from all over the world including Antarctica! I even joined her email list and intend on trying her chocolates. . Works Cited: J. Paul Peter/James H. Donnelly, Jr, (2008), Marketing Management, Knowledge and Skills Eighth Edition. pp. 489-492, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. J. Paul Peter/James H. Donnelly, Jr, (2008), Marketing Management, Knowledge and Skills Eighth Edition. Retrieved from online. pcdi. com, BM350_Assignment_08; McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. http://online. pcdi. com/ec/crs/cntentItem. learn? CourseID=2901074&47=6493555&dt=8%2F15%2) . Demand-based pricing definition – Dictionary Encarta, 2009 http://encarta. msn. com/dictionary_561538482/demand-based_pricing. html Demand-based pricing definition – Niguel Coulthurst 03 Apr 2002 http://www. accaglobal. com/students/student_accountant/archive/2002/25/404831 Cowgirl Chocolates – 2009 Cowgirl Chocolates http://www. cowgirlchocolates. com/beta/thankyou. shtml

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Personal Hygiene And Beauty Products Essay

These products can be used at home or in a salon or spa. Personal Hygiene includes the following. Washing the body using bubble bath, shower gel etc Washing the hair using shampoo Cleaning of nails and hands with hand wash Washing the face using facial washes and scrubs Oral hygiene, taking care of the teeth and gums, and treating or preventing bad breath including daily brushing (with toothpaste) and flossing the teeth, to prevent tooth decay and gum disease. This also helps to treat and prevent bad breath cosmetic care of the body, such as shaving and other forms of depilation. Shampoo Shampoo is a common hair care product used for the removal of oils and sebum, dirt, skin particles, dandruff, environmental pollutants, build up of hair product and other contaminant particles that gradually build up in hair. The goal is to remove the unwanted build-up without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable. There are dozens of different brands to choose from when choosing a shampoo, and even more types within those brands. The same goes for conditioners. Conditioners are meant to add shine, protect hair from drying out and allow for easier combing. Popular Brands of Shampoo Pantene Pro-V Aussie Elvive Herbal Essences TRESemme Dove Head and Shoulders Garnier Fructis Types of Shampoo There are many shampoo types when considering specific hair types, these each have different active ingredients. Curly/wavy – Example – Curly Treatment shampoo by curly hair solutions This shampoo is a concentrate of panthenol and magnesium that strengthens the hair’s elasticity (the ability for the hair to stretch without breaking). Silk amino acids were added to soften and repair even the roughest hair cuticle. Treatment Shampoo will deposit generous amounts of ingredients that are essential in rebuilding chemically damaged hair. Its effects are lasting and with continuous use will ensure healthy strong and fuller hair. Treatment Shampoo will dramatically prolong the results of colouring, perming and relaxing hair. Coloured – Example – Davines Alchemic Shampoo for Coloured hair Main Active Ingredients: Mild surfactants: Gently and carefully cleanse both hair and hair colour. Hydrolyzed milk protein: For an intense conditioning and protective action. Provitamin B5: For a deep moisturising effect Olive oil peg-7 esters: Derived from olive oil, restores the natural hydro-lipid balance, leaving hair that is healthy and protected. pH 5. 3 Frizz prone/ rebellious – Example – Davines Love Smoothing Shampoo This shampoo is specially formulated to nourish, smooth and soften harsh, frizzy hair. It delicately cleanses hair with a special blend of natural active ingredients containing intensive moisturizing and smoothing properties that respect the hair’s internal structure making it more manageable and easier to comb. It is infused with Indian Fig Extract to soften and smooth, and Olive Oil Peg 7 Ester to recover the moisture-lipid level which is essential for dry, frizzy strands. This essential moisture is vital for reducing the hair’s aging process that results from dehydration. Added Rice Proteins keep hair protected from environmental elements while eliminating static. Fine/flat – Example – PhytoVolume Shampoo Phytovolume is a volumizer shampoo for fine, limp, lifeless hair. Crustacean shell extract increase the moisture level in the hair shaft to make it swell for a fuller appearance. So tetrasodium EDTA is used to sequester the calcium and magnesium from the detergent, while keeping them soluble, so they rinse away without scum. Cocamide DEA (or MEA or TEA) is used as a foaming agent, to make the lather. The other surfactants will generate a certain amount of suds, but this foaming agent is added to get the amount just right. Besides its foam stabilizing effects, it is also a viscosity booster (it’s thick). Another foam stabilizing detergent is PEG-5 cocamide, which is a foam stabilizer, surfactant, and emulsifier. The detergent cocamidopropyl betaine is added for several of its special properties. It is milder on the skin than the benzine sulfonates, so adding it to the mix reduces the amount of the harsher detergents needed. It is thicker than the other ingredients, so it can be added to make the mix have the right viscosity. It has anti-static properties, so the hair doesn’t generate an electric charge and jump to the plastic combs and brushes used when drying the hair. It is a humectant, attracting moisture from the air, thus keeping hair from drying out. Lastly, it has antibiotic properties that can prevent spoiling of the shampoo. The surfactant ammonium xylenesulfonate is a hydrotrope, a compound that makes it easier for water to dissolve other molecules. It is added as a thickener, and to help keep some of the odd ingredients added for marketing effect in solution, including perfumes. Glycerol stearate is another emulsifier used for this purpose. Special effects The wax glycol distearate is added to make shampoos opaque and pearlescent. It has tiny flakes that mix well with surfactants, and stay in solution. They also add shear-thinning qualities, making liquid hand soaps pump out of the bottle easier. Sodium chloride (table salt) is used to thicken the mixture if the main surfactants are sodium lauryl sulfates. If the surfactants are ammonium based, then ammonium chloride is used. Salt can make the shampoo harsh and sting the eyes, so more expensive thickeners are used to keep the salt levels low. Modified cellulose based thickeners are ften used, along with the surfactant based thickeners already mentioned. Glycerine is added as a humectant (draws moisture from the air), as is propylene glycol, which is also a preservative. There are many additives put in shampoos and conditioners that appear to be there mainly for marketing purposes. Honey, various herb extracts, and similar items might add to the fragrance, but are unlikely to have any effect in the concentrations used. Amino acids can act as conditioners, but the source of the amino acid is not important. Silk amino acids are no different from soy amino acids, except in the proportions of which particular amino acids are contained. Preservatives Two widely used preservatives, DMDM hydantoin and imidazolidinyl urea are found in many shampoos, to prevent fungal and bacterial spoilage. They release formaldehyde to kill germs. Another broad-spectrum biocide is isothiazolinone and the related methylisothiazolinone and methylchloroisothiazolinone. Sodium benzoate is another preservative used in shampoos. It kills bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, and works well in acidic mixtures. Another bactericide used is 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol. Body Washes and bath Products Body washes also have different types but they are categorised according to skin type or condition. As well as normal skin types which can usually use any products and combination skin types that should shop around for different products. There are anti-aging products, products for acne, dry skin, oily skin and sensitive skin such as a child‘s skin. Skin types and conditions Anti-Aging – Example – Dove Pro-age Beauty Bath Pro Age Beauty Body Wash is for dull tired skin with 1/4 moisturizing cream for vital luminous skin. It is made to give aging skin what it needs; including faster cell turnover and plenty of rich nourishment and protection. It combines functional ingredients like glycerin, emollients, natural soy oil and olive oil to optimize cell turnover while gently cleaning your skin. Other active ingredients of anti-aging products Vitamins and antioxidants are found in almost every antiaging formulation. The best around is tretinoin, a vitamin A derivative that regenerates collagen lost over time and also stops further damage. US-based Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical’s RENOVA, which contains tretinoin, is available by prescription only. However, studies published in 2007 reported that over-the-counter retinol-based lotions and moisturizers, if properly formulated and applied, can result in the reduction of fine lines and wrinkles. Antioxidants scavenge free radicals before they can damage the skin. The leading ingredients are vitamins C and E. â€Å"Each of these ingredients works to protect the skin from sun damage, but they are even more effective when used in combination,† notes Burke. Other antioxidants that have shown potential in laboratory studies include alpha-lipoic acid, the soy isoflavone genistein, selenium, the milk-thistle-derived flavonoid mixture known as silymarin and ubiquinone (coenzyme Q10). None of these has yet undergone rigorous studies to confirm effectiveness in products for human use. Examples of vitamin ingredients include Stay-C 50 (vitamin C sodium ascorbyl phosphate) and ALL-Q plus (vitamin E in combination with Coenzyme Q10) from DSM Nutritional Products. Acne – Example – Acne Skin Nourishing Milk Bath This product is a unique formula It has a milk protein base which is rich in nourishing vitamins, amino acids and minerals. This product contains natural plant collagen from Oat Extract and Japanese Camellia Oil to feed the skin whilst keeping it soft and supple. It is also excellent for irritated, sensitive and excessively dry skin conditions. It has Benzoyl Peroxide as its active ingredient which has anti bacterial properties. Other active ingredients of acne products The ingredient of an acne product depends on its use. Some acne products have herbal ingredients known for curing acne and removing acne scasr. One of the active ingredients of an acne product in the market is the anti-bacterial agent known as Benzoyl Peroxide (which is the active ingredient of my acne bath product). It destroys the acne causing bacteria that causes drying and peeling effect thus preventing skin breakouts. Another one was a beta hydroxy acid from the bark of a willow tree called Salicylic Acid. This agent has a bigger molecule size that helps the beta hydroxy acid stay on the surface of the skin, allowing it to penetrate effectively as it exfoliates inside the pore and prevents the pores from clogging. The ingredient sulfur and resorcinol are often found together as they are rarely used alone in acne products in the market. Removing dead skin cells that clogs pores and removes excess oil from skin is the primary use of this ingredient. The use of products with these may cause redness and peeling but can actually help break down whiteheads and blackheads. Products with alcohol and acetone found generally in astringents can be a primary solution in removing dirt and oils from skin that causes acne build up if ignored.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Ethical Debate on Assisted Suicide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethical Debate on Assisted Suicide - Essay Example This is because they have adequate knowledge to assist persons commit suicide. The ethical debate on assisted suicide is not as recent as most people assume. Examining the principles of medical ethics sheds light on these issues. In the 4th century B.C, the Hippocratic Oath took precedence as guidance to doctor patient relationship. One section of this oath holds that the doctor should not administer, or advice persons to administer lethal drugs. The Platonian philosophical error focused an immense deal on not only the moral but also the psychological (social) and theological (religious) questions on suicide. However, the ancient debates on suicide and assisted suicide for that matter take little account of the self. Instead, these debates focus on the social role and responsibility of the person committing suicide. Religion, on the other hand, takes a rather different approach. In Christianity, for instance, killing is wrong whether done to self or others. The contradiction is that most religions hold the virtue of compassion with endearment. While other parties will use this same virtue to root for assisted suicide, religion still views it as wrong (Gorsuch, 2009). Philosophy, like most religions, acknowledges the human ability to distinguish right from wrong. Upon this foundation, a philosopher may examine the issue of assisted suicide from one feasible approach. This first approach requires that one assumes that all factors held constant, an individual in their right state of mind in whatever decision they make reflect their moral, religious, philosophical and by extension ethical convictions. As such, a person choosing death instead of life must have examined their options and tagged assisted suicide â€Å"best option†. Fernandes (2008) while reflecting on some of the arguments

Friday, September 27, 2019

Mapp V. Ohio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mapp V. Ohio - Essay Example Mapp later on took her case to the US Supreme Court and filed an appeal based on the argument that the previous ruling violated her First Amendment Right that is the Right to the Freedom of Speech. In this particular case the US Supreme Court sided with Mapp. However, the US Supreme Court did not focus on the First Amendment Rights and rather affiliated to the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution, while extending the search and seizure Exclusionary Rule to the state courts as well (Babcock, 2005, p. 1490). The motive behind this ruling was to exclude the disrespect for constitutional guarantees in the criminal procedure, by removing the incentives to their disregard and ignorance (Babcock, 2005). Since 1914, the Federal Courts desisted from admitting illegally seized evidence. Yet, the State Courts enjoyed the liberty as to deciding whether particular evidence was to be admitted or excluded. In the given case the Supreme Court clearly evinced that any evidence procured illegally could not be admitted in a State Court. The Supreme Court ruling in Mapp v. Ohio was indeed controversial as it placed the onus on the courts to decide whether a particular piece of evidence was procured legally or illegally. This decision opened up the US Courts to a plethora of cases concerning the application of the exclusionary rule to the presented evidence (Grossman, 2006, p. 374). This decision ushered in a radical change in the US criminal procedure, extending an array of rights to the criminal defendants (Grossman, 2006, p, 374). Indeed, culture played a predominant role in influencing the Court’s decision as this decision was based on the then popular perception regarding Constitutional provisions and liberties. This ruling indeed left an unprecedented legal legacy of judicial activism in the arena of criminal justice and the affiliated civil liberties. This case convincingly established that the Police that had entered Mapp’s premises without a

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Harvard Business Review Competitive Forces Paper Essay

Harvard Business Review Competitive Forces Paper - Essay Example However, the risks can be translated to a competitive advantage (Porter, 2008). Areas where IT represents a risk to company’s competitive advantage Physical threats Physical threats arise from damage of company servers and other IT resources e.g. by fire, theft and floods. It may also happen as a result of unauthorized access of information by malicious employees. Electronic threats Such risks when they materialize aim at compromising the information security of a company. They come in the following ways: virus attacks e.g. luv bug and Melissa viruses; attach by black hat hackers who are usually malicious and crack your IT system hoping to gain something out of the information; fraudulent emails and websites. These threats can cause fraudulent transactions. The staff also misuses organizations emails and web. Organizations bandwidth can also be misused by Staff who performs peer-to-peer file transfer and sharing. Failure to update or configure the organization's software usual ly brings about these types of threats. Technical failure Occur when a hardware device ceases to function or some of its components get damaged. In some instances, it occurs when a software bug is introduced to the system or shows up due implementation errors. This failure can occur due to large, complex systems which are unstable and are frequently maintained and updated. Infrastructural failure Occurs when network and power outages occur and one cannot access the internet. These will definitely interrupt the business process and valuable transactions might be missed out. A company may have an Uninterrupted Power Supply, but in other cases, they seem to fail. Human error These happen when an employee fails to adhere or to be keen to IT stipulated policies and procedures or when an employee accidentally deletes important business data. Specific areas in which IT may support or promote a company’s competitive advantage Know the IT environment/estate In order to manage risks, a company needs to know all its IT assets. It needs to know how many servers are there, how many PCs per department, the applications running on the servers and client PCs. The company should also keep track of who uses which IT asset, who manages the assets, supports the systems, the data stored and processed in servers and machines, the workflow of the processes e.tc. A company might rate the importance of an asset by the data they store the liability which can be got when the data gets mishandled. Companies also have tools which track the assets even by the person who uses it and can even happen in real time, but the most important thing is arranging the assets in groupings which are organized e.g. as a business unit, data center product line. It can be put in any grouping which allows the analysts to do their job without too much consultation or up and down movements. A manager may want to view analysis reports or an auditor may want to view compliance reports. Identifying risks and policies The organization needs to identify the risks which are a likely and their probabilities. It should also identify the policies which can be utilized in managing risks. The starting point is identifying the operational policy controls which are usually under the company’s IT Governance and risk compliance (GTC) program. The operational controls standards used

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Employment Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Employment Relations - Essay Example The activities of the firm concerns with the products while the union concerns with the aspect of a service. These two goals may coincide and clash in various circumstances. To begin with, the labor unions are beneficial in protecting minority groups (Shelley & Cleveley 2007, p. 69). Minority groups offer a wide area of looking at the same. For instance, disabled individuals who take part in the labor force may experience a bias out of their scenario. If they do attain an adequate voice of addressing their concerns, large companies would assume that their companies are progressing. Apart from direct exploitation, minority groups would suffer from unintentional inadequate attention from the management. Firms may entail processes and regulations that compromise on minority workers’ situations. Trade unions are hawk eyed entities that assess companies in terms of very single operation. In certain instances, companies may have work operations that assign hectic and low paying assi gnments to certain workers. Such scenarios are handed down from previous systems and they may continue to occur under the unconsciousness of the management. An example would relate to bias against certain races in terms of job assignments. The trade unions would discover about such minority groups and investigate their plights. It is crucial to highlight that certain minority groups arise out of hypothetical situations. It might be visible after some period that minority groups develop out of departments that they work in the same. In addition, trade unions help in minimizing disputes that may arise out of workers and the employers. In this sense, the trade unions eliminate trivialities that may arise out of employees and their management. In notable instances, the management of firms may make assumptions about employees. This might relate to the view of employees as a group that operates on peer pressure. In this sense, the peer pressure would lead to unreasonable demands that push the firms out of their balance. This suggests that trade unions are intermediary rather than constraining forces to firms. It is crucial to highlight that disputes place employees out of firms. In turn, it constrains employees from growth in their careers. In addition, employers are likely to misperceive the actions of employees. Spotted employees may earn unconstructive reputation with their firms. This suggests that the affected employees are likely to receive limiting comments from their employers. In the end, it would be difficult for the employee to earn the trust of other firms. In addition, trade unions avail safe working environments for employees. The work environment might be a limited but an unsafe environment for the health of employees. The work environment should be a platform whereby both the employees and their firms respectively achieve their objectives of wages and products. In the achievement of the two divergent objectives, the work environment may digress and i njure employees. Harm is a diverse term that comprises both physical and psychological aspects. In physical harm, firms may entail work environments that injure the health of workers. For instance, there are manufacturing companies that involve in the production of harmful chemicals and products. In such a scenario, it is vital to provide protective mechanisms for workers. Alternatively, the firm would employ machinery that excludes employees from the core manufacturing processes that entail emission of toxic substances

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

EDUCATIONAL URBAN TOUR 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

EDUCATIONAL URBAN TOUR 2 - Essay Example The website to the event is http://www.metroymcas.org/east-orange-ymca/. The event is open to all people, although, kids aged between 5 and 10 years will find it to be more fun. There is no entrance fee charged for the camp, with the only requirement being a T shirt worth $ 10. More parents have been taking their kids to attend the program, and mostly find themselves recommending the event to other parents. Kids are taught on how to be self-reliant when faced with certain situations (â€Å"Metropolitan YMCA of the Oranges†). According to the website, â€Å"Metropolitan YMCA of the Oranges† the YMCA organization encourages healthy habits, and thus organizes a program called the â€Å"Healthy U Program† that is focused on supporting families in their efforts to build the pillars that support a healthy family home. The five pillars according to the â€Å"Healthy U Program† are healthy eating, playing every day, going outside, eating well, getting together and sleeping well. It is due to these reasons that the organization organizes open gym for the family, where families spend quality time being healthy. During this time, the event is free to all members only, and the family will spend quality and active fun, held at the Turreell Gymnasium, 159 N, Munn Avenue, East Orange. ... en The Horizon Foundation for New Jersey and the YMCA which has been incorporated in all East Orange YMCA preschool and Afterschool programs for the youth. The program is designed to combat obesity in children by encouraging behavioural change. The New Jersey Explorer Children’s Museum, located in 192 Dodd East Orange, NJ 07017, and organizes various events for children such as school camps and birth day party groups. School camps and other groups are free for adults’ entry, while every child is required to pay an admission fee of $ 7. It also organizes special field trips that are free for school’s admissions for qualifying school programs. The phone number for booking trip admissions is (973) 673 6900 or (201) 200-310. Birthday party groups are charged at $ 10 per child, and $ 8 per child for 15 or more children. The class can opt to book the birthday party group for a child who is celebrating birthday. Children are treated with various fun events like the trav elling exhibits, split second stories, and treasures of the ancient kings, arts and crafts, bridge of books partnership, stargazer, the village and also the jukebox timeline. The website to the New Jersey Explorer Children’s Museum is http://www.jerseyexplorer.org. If a booked admission is cancelled within five days, no charges are charged, while cancellations with less than five days will attract a charge of $25. A confirmation letter is emailed, faxed or mailed to the client (â€Å"Jersey Explorer Children’s Museum†). The Newark museum offers various activities to various groups of people and clients, tailor made to fit the tastes and requirements of the group. Children are treated to various events, with Makerspace being an example. The event takes place in every 3rd Saturday of every month, from 1,

Monday, September 23, 2019

Ethics Boards. Should IRB set common rules for researchers Case Study

Ethics Boards. Should IRB set common rules for researchers - Case Study Example In America, the Institutional Review Boards is a body charged with responsibilities of ensuring that the aforementioned concerns are addressed amicably so that research can be conducted appropriately hence providing reliable findings that will change the complexity of human life. in this particular case, a conclusion will be drawn based five studies case that has indicated how unethically conducted research can affect the normal life of individuals. Considering the first case, the researchers carried out the study on the effectiveness of penicillin in curing syphilis. It is paramount to state that they acted unethically by overstretching the freedom bestowed on them. as such, they acted with least responsibility and disrespect to humanity. In the second case, the researchers disregarded the cultural practices of particular people through excavating of their keens’ remains. Similarly, with the third case, the procedures that involve getting approval by the IRB is quite restricted. As such, it is hard to get approval making some researchers disregard the regulatory body. In the fourth case, the IRB is accused of unethically derailing some mega projects on grounds that they are unethical. Finally, the fifth case concerns researchers who dishonestly obtains human specimen such as blood without properly informed consent. All researchers should seek guidance and authorization before carrying its preliminaries. In addition, they should present the research proposal beforehand to allow experts to give their opinion for or against the procedure.

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Auditory Attention Essay Example for Free

Auditory Attention Essay The ability to localize sound sources is of considerable importance to both humans and animals; it will determine the direction of objects to seek or to avoid as well as indicating the appropriate direction to direct visual attention. The precision of sound localization is remarkable, particularly for brief sounds or for those occurring in noisy or reverberant surroundings. While the most reliable cues used in the localization of sounds depend upon a comparison of the signals reaching the two ears, there are also phenomena of auditory space perception which result from monoaural processing of the signals. Localization refers to judgments of the direction and distance of a sound source. Like when headphones are worn, the sound image is located inside the head. Headphones allow precise control of interaural differences and eliminate effects related to room echoes. Using two ears we are able to selectively attend to sounds coming from a particular direction while effectively excluding other sounds. This ability is particularly important in noisy surroundings or when there are several sound sources competing for our attention. Our acuity in locating sounds is greatest in the horizontal dimension, fairly good in the vertical direction and least good in the depth dimension. Aside from this ability we are also able to judge the direction of a sound source and to some extent estimates its distance. Many everyday experiences indicate that auditory localization can be influenced by conflicting visual cues. At a cinema for example, the loudspeakers are usually placed behind the screen or in its center yet the sound still appears to come from the actor’s mouth as he moves about the screen. Similarly, the loudspeaker in a television set is located to one side of the screen but the sound does not appear to be detached from the visual image. Thus, it might be possible that exposure to conflicting auditory and visual cues for a period of time may lead to an after-effect in which the localization of sounds is systematically displaced. This may occur during experiments wherein sound may be generates from one area but a cue may say otherwise and given the effects of practice and priming, experiment results into auditory localization may not be valid. Early findings on the study of orienting pure auditory attention have yielded no significant change in performance. Posner (1980) did not find any advantage in the use of auditory pre- cueing of auditory targets. Others have failed to find a benefit for the detection of sounds coming from expected vs. unexpected locations (Scharf, Quigley, Aoki, Peachey and Reeves, 1987). Buchtel and Butter (1988) found that informative auditory cues provided a benefit in the detection of visual targets; however they failed to find a benefit from cues on auditory targets. Klein, Brennan and Gilani (1987) also found no benefit in the detection of auditory targets with the use of uninformative cues using both visual and auditory cues. However, the use of auditory and visual cues together on tasks has been promising. Previous researches on multisensory instruments have found that it can optimize performance rather than using one sensory modality. Recently Duncan, Martens and Ward (1997) found evidence of restricted attentional capacity within but not between sensory modalities. They presented streams of visual and or auditory inputs containing occasional targets to be identified and recalled, for two visual or two auditory streams they found that the identification of one target produced a sustained reduction in the ability to identify a second target. In contrast, when the streams were from both modalities, there was no such reduction in the identification of the second target. The results suggest a modality-specific restriction to concurrent attention and awareness. The results of this study have important implications for the design of complex human machine interface systems. Systems should be designed to take advantage of the spatial presentation of information to the human operator to enhance the detection rate of critical information (i. e. ; warnings). This findings support Rhodes (1987) earlier work on auditory attention where he reported that auditory attention has spatial constraints. He found that time linearly increased to localize a sound as a function of distance from the point of attention; he further proposed that even for sounds, localization is shifted through logical and topographical representations. Information presented in locations where spatial attention has been allocated has both faster and more accurate response in both visual and auditory modalities (Posner, 1980, Ward, 2000, Spence driver, 1996, 1997a, 1997b). Moreover, even if there is a limited human attentional capacity the nature of spatial attention across modalities suggests that if one modality is overloaded the attentional capacity of other modalities are not adversely affected (Duncan, Martens Ward, 1997). Thus, the best way to maximize this modality-specific restriction is to present information using both the visual and auditory modalities. Flanagan, McAnally, Martin, Meehan Oldfield (1998) found evidence of the usefulness of using both modalities. In their study, they reported that visual search times were reduced when spatially informative auditory information was supplied. They used a spatial localization task in which the search for a visual target was aided by either a visual arrow or an auditory cue. They found both the visual and the auditory cues aided in significantly reducing the search times when compared to unaided search. It is however important that the visual and auditory information presented are detectable and localizable. Hence a signal should be localizable when information presented is critical (i. e. ; location of threats such as enemy fighters, missiles etc. ) and that information presented is expected in that location will improve response time and accuracy (Posner, 1980, Spence and Driver, 1996).

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Term Paper (Climate Change) Essay Example for Free

Term Paper (Climate Change) Essay Acknowledgement It is a great opportunity for me to write about subject like â€Å"Climate Change†. At the time of preparing this term paper I am gone through different books and websites which helps me to get acquired with new topics. I can usually focusing on the topics which are important for us to understand about thus subject easily. I acknowledge my deepest gratitude to our dearest English teacher Sir Benedict Geropn who is always sincere and helpful in making us understand the different system in making a research paper. Introduction Climate Change is changing our economy, health and community in diverse ways. Scientists warn that if we do not aggressively curb climate change now, the result will likely be disastrous. There are many questions that is need to be answer. So that we, humans will make some moves in these problem. Carbon dioxide and other global warming pollutions are collecting in the atmosphere like a thickening blanket, trapping the sun’s heat and causing the planet to warm up. Climate change is a complex phenomenon, and it’s full-scale impacts are hard to predict far in advance. But each year scientists learn more about how climate change is affecting the planet and our communities, and most agree that carbon consequences are likely to occur if current trends continue. In addition to impacting our water resources, energy supply, transportation, agriculture and ecosystems, the United States global change research program concludes that climate change also poses unique challenges to human health such as: * Significant increases in the risk of illness and death related to extreme heat and heat waves are very likely. * Some diseases transmitted by food, water and insects are likely to increase. * Certain groups, including children, the elderly and the poor are most vulnerable to a range of climate related health effects. Climate Change affects our environment and natural resources, and impacts our way of life in many ways these are the examples: * Rising sea levels threaten coastal communities and ecosystems. * Changes in the patterns and amount of rainfall, as well as changes in the timing and amount of stream flow, can affect water supplies and water quality and the production of hydroelectricity changing ecosystems influence geographic ranges of many plants and animal species and the timing of their lifecycle events, such as migration and reproduction. We can prepare for some of the likely change impacts to reduce their effects on ecosystem and human well-being. Making such preparations is known as adaptation. Examples of adaptation include strengthening water conservation programs, upgrading storm water systems, developing early warning systems for extreme heat events and preparing for stronger storms through better emergency preparation and response strategies. We can each play an important role in stopping climate change. It is not too late to have a significant impact on future climate change and its effects on us. With appropriate actions by governments, communities, individuals and businesses, we can reduce the amount of greenhouse gas pollution we release and lower the risk of much greater warming and severe consequences. Many of the actions that we can take to address climate change will have other benefits, such as cleaner, healthier air. In addition, communities can take action to prepare for the changes we know are coming. I. Introduction The world’s climate is changing and the changes will have an enormous impact on our planet’s people, ecosystems, cities and energy use. Average global air temperatures are already 1.4 degrees higher than they were at the start of the 20th century and have risen about 1.1 degree F over just the last 30 years. What is the difference between weather and climate? Climate describe the average or typical conditions of temperature, relative humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, wind speed and direction and other meteorological factors that prevail globally or regionally for extended periods. Weather describes the hourly or daily conditions that people experience each day. Which is why it’s often said that â€Å"Climate is what you expect; weather is what you get.† People expect the weather to change, but have a harder time agreeing exactly how climate is changing. This is because climate change manifests itself differently in different places: because people tend to remember extreme events- such as very hot or cold days of hurricanes and droughts more than subtle changes in trends; and because there have been disagreements between scientists about the magnitude, causes and effects of climate change. What are the solutions for climate change? The first step is admitting that you have a problem. Some of these solutions are Energy conservation, Renewable energy and sequestration. In this research you will know how these things helps in solving climate change. II. What is Weather? Weather is what is going on in the sky and air. Different places can have different kinds of weather at the same time. In one place, there maybe a thunderstorm, in another place there may be snow. In yet another place the weather may ba sunny and warm. Temperature- how hot or cold it is always a part of weather. Rainy Weather when drops of water fall from clouds, the weather is rainy. Sometimes, lots of rain falls, which is collect heavy rain. Other times, only a little rain falls, which is called light rain. â€Å"Rainy†, â€Å"Light Rain† and â€Å"Heavy Rain† all describe the weather. Weather is violent storms, rains, sleet, rail, snow, temperature, wind and much more. It is basically whatever is happening in the air around us. Is the state of atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or starry, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather generally refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used with our qualifications, â€Å"weather† is understood to be the weather of earth. Weather is driven by air pressure differences between one place and another these pressure and temperature differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperatures contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extra tropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth’s axis tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident a different angles at different times of the year. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitude due to differences in compression neating. Studying how the weather works on another planet has been helpful in understanding how weather works on earth. On Earth, common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons and ice storms. Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere. Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are pearly understood. Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure differences between one place to another these differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. In other words, the farther from the tropics you lay, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due to the indirect sunlight. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather Systems in the tropics, such as monsoons or organized thunderstorms systems, are caused by different processes. III. What is Climate? Is weather the same a climate? No, because weather is what happens in one place on a single day, or over a few days or weeks. When it rains or snows, people say, â€Å"The weather is wet.† When it is warm outside people say â€Å"the weather is hot.† Climate on the other hand, is the type of weather a place has over 30 or more years. For example, people say â€Å"Death valley has a desert climate.† Climate is the weather that a place usually has year after year. Scientists study temperature and precipitation records over 30 or more years to determine an areas climate such record show, for example, that Death Valley in California has a desert climate. Climate encompasses that statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over long periods. Climate can be contrasted to weather, which is the present condition of these elements and their variations over shorter periods. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their currents. Climate can be classified according ti the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme was originally developed by Wladimir Koppen. A region’s climate is generated by the Climate System which has five components Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Cryospher, Land Surface and Biosphere. A. Four Main factors that determine climate are: i. Altitude Altitude refers to the vertical distance between the lowest point and the highest point of an area. People generally compare a land’s altitude by measuring the distance from sea level to the highest point. The koppen climate classification uses altitude to divide the climate regions in to the categories for low, mid and high altitudes. Altitude or height is defined based on the context in which it is used- aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sports and more- As a general definition; attitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or â€Å"up† direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The reference datum also often varies according to the context. Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above the sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage. Vertical distance measurements in the â€Å"down† direction are commonly referred to us depth. In aviation, the term altitude can have several meanings, and is always qualified by either explicitly adding a modifier or implicitly through the context of the communication. Parties exchanging information must be clear which definition is being used aviation altitude is measured using either Mean Sea Level (MSL) or Local Ground Level (LGL) as the reference datum. The earth’s atmosphere is divided into several altitude regions. The troposphere- surface to 8000 meters (5.0 mi) at the poles- 18000 meter (11 mi) at the equator, ending at the tropo-pause. The stratosphere- troposphere to 50 kilometers (31 mi) The Mesosphere-Stratosphere to 85 kilometers (53 mi). Thermosphere- Mesosphere to 675 kilometers (419 mi) and the exosphere which is from the thermosphere to 1000 kilometers (6200 mi). Relation between the temperature and altitude in Earth’s atmosphere. The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere of a given time and location. As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of 6.49 K (oC)/ 1000 m (3.56oF or 1.98 K(o()/1000 Ft) from sea levels to 11 kilometers (36 000 ft) Effects of high altitude in humans. Medicine recognizes that altitudes above 1 500 meters (4900 ft) start to affect human, and extreme altitude above 5 500- 6 000 meters (18 000- 20 000 ft0 cannot be permanently tolerated by humans by reducing the partial pressure of oxygen. The higher the altitude, the more likely are serious effects. The human body can adopt to high altitude by breathing faster, having a higher heart rate, and adjusting its blood chemistry. It can take two days or weeks to adapt to high altitude. ii. Latitude Latitude the distance of a region is from the equator, to the north or south. A region’s latitude determines how much solar energy it receives from the sun, which in turn factors in to the region’s over all temperature. In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinated that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earth’s surface. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run equator to 90o at the poles. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features in the surface of the Earth. Since the actual physical surface at the Earth is too complex for mathematical analysis, two levels of abstraction are employed in the definition of these coordinates. In the first step the physical surface is modeled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses, the second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simple reference surface. The simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modeled by an ellipsoid. The definitions of altitude and longitude on such reference surfaces are detailed in the following sections. Lines if constant latitude and longitude together constitute gratitude on the reference surface. The latitude of a point on the actual surface is that of the corresponding point on the reference surface which passes through the point on the physical surface, latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO 1911 standard. Since there are many different reference ellipsoids the altitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that â€Å"Without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates are ambiguous, such as GPS, but in common wage, where high accuracy is not required, the reference ellipsoid is not usually stated. Measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either for setting up theodolities or for determining of GPS satellite orbits.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Decision of the House of Lords in Street V Mountford

Decision of the House of Lords in Street V Mountford â€Å"The decision of the House of Lords in Street v Mountford in 1985 represented a sea-change in the approach of the courts† (Smith R, Property Law 6th edition (2009) p. 354, Longman Press). Discuss in the context of the courts approach to the distinction between leases and licences. Introduction Many cases prior to Street v Mountford[1] had attempted to identify the difference between a right to ‘possess’ land and a personal right to ‘occupy’ land. Lord Denning explained the difference as ‘the nature and quality of the occupancy.’[2] In other words, ‘a legal right of exclusive possession of the land for a term’[3] would constitute a lease, and a mere permission to use land would amount to a licence. The ‘exclusive possession’ test established by the House of Lords in Street v Mountford, per Lord Templeman, was that an occupier would not be a tenant if he had no exclusive ‘possession’ for a ‘certain’ duration. This case has now been regarded as having marked a ‘sea-change’ in land law. The distinctions to be drawn between leases and licences There are certain reasons why the courts have sought to distinguish between licences and leases. Different statutory protections exist for both. The real problem, however, is in how the courts have attempted to draw the line between leases and licences, particularly in the light of the exclusive possession test[4]. The court’s first concern would be that the term ‘licence’ is too broad it covers almost all types of permission. When we use the term ‘licence’ in relation to land, however, we mean, not merely a personal right to occupy the land but also, a right to use the land in any way. However, such right can be distinguished from a proprietary right[5]. In licences, the individual holding the licence (i.e. the licensee) has, in general, no right to exclude others from the land (including the landowner). A difficulty therefore arises in circumstances where the licensee has the full right (including where s/he has been granted exclusive possession) t o occupy the land. In this context, as shall be discussed below, Lord Denning stated that exclusive possession does not necessarily equate to the grant of a lease, particularly if the parties did not intend to create a tenancy. Although the test in distinguishing between licences and leases does assist in practice, such test is not as straightforward (at least in theory) as one might first expect. Difficulties in distinguishing between leases and licences According to Lord Templeman, the exclusive possession test is conclusive: a person granted exclusive possession must have a lease. However, it does not necessarily mean that one has a lease even though the courts have tended to adopt this approach. Furthermore, it is not easy to apply the exclusive possession test in practice. The first problem for the courts to consider would be when the grant of a right to ‘occupy’ land should amount to a grant of a lease for ‘possession’. The same problem also arises in the definition of ‘certain’ duration. An underlying issue arising out of the first problem would be for the courts to distinguish between ‘possession’ and ‘occupation’[6]. The meaning of ‘possession’ and ‘occupation’ are not exactly the same. The inconsistent use of the term ‘occupation’ and the term ‘possession’ in the Street v Mountford judgment somewhat confused the understanding of the concepts of ‘exclusive occupation’ and ‘exclusive possession’. Lord Templeman also failed to distinguish whether those concepts were statements of legal entitlement or statements of fact. Nevertheless, according to the judgment read as a whole, the term ‘occupation’ should refer to the fact that an occupier merely enjoys the occupation of the land. The term ‘possession’ should refer to those situations where the occupier has the right to enjoy land and exclude all others (including the landowner) from the la nd. Lord Templeman sought to distinguish leases and licences in the following ways: ‘Occupation’ is not sufficient for the occupier to grant a lease; ‘exclusive possession’ is essential. No lease is granted when there is no exclusive possession. Even though an occupier has exclusive possession the landowner and the occupier may have no intention to create a legal relationship or the intention may be negatived by the facts of the case those occupations should not amount to the grant of lease. The latter factor is sufficient to distinguish between lodgers and tenants in circumstances such as renting a hotel room. In the absence of those negative factors, the possession held by the occupier should amount to ‘exclusive possession’. When the occupier has been granted ‘exclusive possession’ for a certain period and at a rent, the grant of a lease should be presumed. Although the occupier has exclusive possession and the right to exclude all others from the land, the right granted might be considered to be something other than a lease such as ‘fee simple ownership’. Prior Street v Mountford, the element of exclusive possession was not a necessary requirement to be considered.[7] However, Lord Templeman confirmed that the consideration of exclusive possession was necessary and conclusive. He further developed the principle expounded by Lord Denning: ‘the nature and the quality’ of occupation is essential to determining whether the occupation is a lease or a licence.[8] Lord Denning stated that although exclusive possession could be considered as the main element in deciding whether an occupier has granted a lease, it does not necessarily mean that an occupier who grants exclusive possession is not necessarily granting a lease. Nevertheless, a person in ‘occupation’ has no tenancy if he has no exclusive right in the land. Lord Templeman explained that the intention of creating a legal relationship is also important to distinguishing between a lease and a licence. However, the subjective intention between the occupier and landowner is irrelevant the court should look at the objective agreement, i.e. whether the parties intended to create a legal relationship. First, the parties cannot assume that the label attached to the agreement will be conclusive.[9] Secondly, the parties’ agreement cannot act as a device in order to disguise[10] the grant of a tenancy.[11] Thirdly, specific provisions within the agreement may be ignored by the court if the surrounding circumstances suggest that those provisions could not have been intended to form part of the agreement.[12] It has been held that a time limitation may apply (in this case between 10:30am to noon) in respect of exclusion of persons from a property.[13] Finally, if the occupier shares occupation with others, the court may read the relevant agreements together and treat those agreements as one transaction, even if the facts suggest that those occupiers’ relationships are interdependent.[14] The House of Lords reaffirmed these principles in the latter case Burrows v Brent LBC[15]. In that case, the landowner granted a possession order against the tenant for unpaid rent. They agreed temporarily not enforce the order and to allow the tenant to remain in occupation if she paid a sum equivalent to the rent due. Applying those principles to this situation, it was held that the parties had not intended to create a legal relationship, and the tenant therefore was considered a ‘tolerated trespasser’. Lord Millett[16] also confirmed the principle that exclusive possession on its own is not sufficient for the granting of a lease, but that occupation with the identification of a legal relationship between the occupier and the landlord is an essential consideration. Lord Millett therefore regarded Street v Mountford[17] as a significant authority for the proposition that a person in ‘occupation’ or ‘possession’ may be regarded as merely a licensee if there is no legal relationship. Notwithstanding the fact that the debate about the definition of ‘legal relationship’ will be ongoing, the differences between leases and licences may be distinguished by the degree of ‘possession’. If someone who is purely holding a personal right to occupy land without a legal relationship, then such right will, in most cases, be a licence. Alternatively, if someone grants a right to exclude all others from the land in question, including the landlord, for a certain period of time, then such right may be called a lease. The ‘terminology’ problem of the words ‘possession’ and ‘occupation’ appear to have been solved by the cases which were decided after Street v Mountford[18]. The debate surrounding the meaning to be given to ‘certain’ duration, however, still remains alive. Lord Denning posed: what would the court do if the occupier has been granted exclusive possession of land without certain duration?[19] In law, if a landlord grants an occupier (who pays rent) exclusive possession of a property without certainty of duration, the occupier will have a periodic tenancy (demonstrated by the payment of a periodic rent) rather than a licence.[20] This case reaffirmed that the element of ‘exclusive possession’ is the most important consideration to the granting of a lease. Nevertheless, the distinction between the tenant (leaseholder) and the lodger (licensee) is very significant[21]. Case law has established that the distinction will arise from the fact that an agreement might allow a landowner to exercise unrestricted rights to use or access property, and not simply ‘from the provision that the landowner provides service to such property’.[22] An additional consideration for the courts, established by one particular case, was to examine the extent of the right which the landowner actually has to exercise.[23] By reference to that approach, it will become clear whether there is a tenant or a lodger to property.[24] Another significant impact which Street v Mountford[25] has made in the context of litigation has been in relation to the duties of local authorities to provide accommodation for the homeless under the Housing Act 1985 (now Part VII of the Housing Act 1996). The Court of Appeal has held that although an occupier has been granted exclusive possession, a local authority might have had provided accommodation pursuant to its statutory duties towards the homeless which will have the effect of negating the intention of creating a legal relationship between the parties.[26] However, if the accommodation was provided by a housing association or an organisation other than the local authority (even on referral from the local authority), the background of homelessness will not negative the intention of creating a tenancy as such an association or organisation does not exercise any statutory duty.[27] Therefore, the House of Lords affirmed that the duties of local authority were held to negative the intention of creating a lease even though the occupier was granted an exclusive possession of the property.[28] In the case Burton v London and Quadrant Housing Trust, since the agreement in question stated that the housing trust had no legal title to the property and the parties had attempted to create a licence rather than a lease, the Court of Appeal held that there was no lease because the housing trust had no legal title to the property. However, the House of Lords found that legal title was not relevant.[29] Nonetheless, the distinction between licence and lease in this context (under statutory duty) has been reduced by the Housing Act 1996, section 216(3), Schedule 17, para 3. Having regard to the Housing Act 1996, the Court of Appeal held that granting exclusive possession under the statute would not amount to the creation of a lease. This rule also applies to the relationship between beneficiaries and trustees the trustee has the power to grant the right, but the grant of a lease may intrude upon the trustees’ duties.[30] Conclusion Although the rules of Street v Mountford[31] apply in cases of residential occupation, certain principles deriving from it such as the distinction to be drawn between ‘lodger’ and ‘tenant’ may not be applicable in certain circumstances. The basic elements of ‘exclusive possession’ and ‘the nature and quality’ test will, however, be applicable in the commercial occupation context. Nevertheless, we should note that Street v Mountford[32] was a case of a single occupier. Multiple occupation may, therefore, lead to a more complicated situation, which Lord Templeman has not discussed. (2,333 words) Bibliography Texts Gravells N P, Land Law: Text and Materials (1999) Street Maxwell, London Dixon M, Principles of Land Law (2002) Cavendish Publishing Ltd, London Oakley A J, Megarry’s Manual of the Law of Real Property (2002) Street Maxwell, London Clarke A and Kohler P, Property Law Commentary and Materials (2005) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Articles Wilkinson H, The lease licence distinction. Again? (2001) NLJ Pawlowski M, Contractual licences, personal tenancies and tenancies at will (2001) L T Review 2001, 5(6), 117-118 Colbey R, Detecting a sham (2001) NLJ Morgan J, The changing meaning of ‘dwelling-house’ (2002) CLJ 61(2), 312 Grundy N and Joss N, Landlord and tenant update (2006) SJ 805 Peachey L, Elements of a tenancy assured and assured shortholds (2007) HLM 14 5(5) Cases Errington v Errington and Wood [1952] 1 KB 290 Radaich v Smith (1959) 101 CLR 209 at 222 Marchant v Charters [1977] 3 All ER 918 Street v Mountford [1985] AC 825 Markou v Da Silvaesa (1986) P CR 204 Brooker Settled Estates Ltd v Ayers (1987) 54 P CR 165 AG Securities v Vaughan (1988) 56 P CR 168 Hadjiloucas v Crean [1988] 1 WLR 1006 Ogwr BC v Dykes [1989] 1 WLR 295 Aslan v Murphy (No. 1) [1990] 1 WLR 766 Antoniades v Villiers [1990] 1 AC 417 Duke v Wynne [1990] 1 WLR 766 Family Housing Association v Jones [1990] 1 WLR 779 Prudential Assurance Co. Ltd v London Residuary Body [1992] 2 AC 386 Westminster City Council v Clarke [1992] 2 AC 288 Burrows v Brent LBC [1996] 1 WLR 1448 Gray v Taylor [1998] 1 WLR 1093 Family Housing Association v Jones [1999] 3 WLR 150 Ramnarace v Lutchman [2001] UKPC 25 1 Footnotes [1] Street v Mountford [1985] AC 825 [2] Marchant v Charters [1977] 3 All ER 918 [3] Radaich v Smith (1959) 101 CLR 209 at 222 [4] The lease – licence distinction. Again? (2001) NLJ [5] Contractual licences, personal tenancies and tenancies at will (2001) L T Review 5(6), 116-118 [6] Elements of a tenancy assured and assured shortholds (2007) HLM 14 5(5) [7] Hadjiloucas v Crean [1988] 1 WLR 1006 [8] Errington v Errington and Wood [1952] 1 KB 290 [9] Duke v Wynne [1990] 1 WLR 766 [10] Detecting a sham (2001) NLJ [11] Ibid. [12] Aslan v Murphy (No. 1) [1990] 1 WLR 766 [13] Antoniades v Villiers [1990] 1 AC 417 [14] AG Securities v Vaughan (1988) 56 P CR 168 [15] Burrows v Brent LBC [1996] 1 WLR 1448 [16] Ramnarace v Lutchman [2001] UKPC 25 [17] Ibid. [18] Ibid. [19] Ibid. [20] Prudential Assurance Co. Ltd v London Residuary Body [1992] 2 AC 386 [21] The changing meaning of ‘dwelling-house’ (2002) CLJ 61(2), 312 [22] Markou v Da Silvaesa (1986) P CR 204 [23] Ibid. [24] Brooker Settled Estates Ltd v Ayers (1987) 54 P CR 165 [25] Ibid. [26] Ogwr BC v Dykes [1989] 1 WLR 295 [27] Family Housing Association v Jones [1990] 1 WLR 779 [28] Westminster City Council v Clarke [1992] 2 AC 288 [29] Family Housing Association v Jones [1999] 3 WLR 150 [30] Gray v Taylor [1998] 1 WLR 1093 [31] Ibid. [32] Ibid.

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Is the US Ready for Chaotic Oil Markets :: essays papers

Is the US Ready for Chaotic Oil Markets The cost of gasoline to provide a many of services, transportation being most popular, is effecting our nation dramatically. One of the major reason’s for these soaring prices is due to Saddam Hussein calling the Arab states to use oil as a major weapon for countries who do not support Israel. America has itself involved with an insurance providing protection to import cut offs yet at this period of time, the oil reserves can only provide the replacement of 53 days using reserve. That is defiantly not enough to hold us over in need. Almost seventeen years ago, the number of days that our reserves provided us was more than double than it is today, mostly due to the increase in demand. This is the principal reason that the reserve does not provide the amount of protection that it had before. Domestic oil production now stands at about 6 million barrels per day ,one-third less than in 1985 , while the United States imports about 9 million barrels per day, more than 2 ½ t imes as much as it imported in 1985. With all these factors present, it is almost an obvious indicator that a crisis may be forthcoming with the impact of Saddam Hussein’s power. Saddam Hussein mentioned Sunday in an Iraqi broadcast, â€Å"The world knows and uses the language of economics, why don’t the Arabs use this language?†. Saddam Hussein’s economic burden against the United states recalls when the Arab oil embargo took effect on the western nations in 1973 during the Yom Kippur war. This started and economic production decline in the United States in 1974 and 1975. Could this revolve into another oil embargo? On Tuesday, Iraq mentioned that it was ready to punish America for its continuing support of Israel. If this in fact did happen, it would effect America tremendously for on some months we rely on Iraq for more than a million barrels of oil per day. Larry Goldstein, a veteran analyst with the Petroleum Industry Research Foundation, mentioned that even though an oil embargo is not present, it is still always possible for the sabotage of oil lines when war is present. For example, if the United States bought no oil at all from Saudi Arabia, American consumers would still be exposed to the ups and downs of world oil

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Essay --

‘Of Mice and Men’ is based on the experiences of a migrant farmer, set in 1930’s America. The characters are also symbolized as realistic people, but influenced by the issues and circumstances based on the Wall Street crash, the American Dream and being set after WWI. I empathies for these characters for the consequences of these historical events are what to have made ‘Of Mice and Men’ a tragedy in relation to loneliness. Each character had the idea of their own American Dream, whether it was based on money, status, happiness, and so on. Yet unfortunately, only the reader realizes that they will never be fulfilled. George and Lennie’s dream of their own ranch conveyed to me as their own image of Heaven. The opening descriptions of Section One, such as the water was â€Å"twinkling over the yellow sands in the sunlight† quoted in chapter 1, convey to me on how Lennie and George travel on their journey to hopefully recreate these experiences as their ranch, for the sands were â€Å"a few miles south of Soledad† also stated in chapter 1, a land represented of loneliness and depression, which ...

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Hausser Food Products Company Сase Study

Summary: Due to demographical changes and competition growth Hausser Food Products Company (a leading infant food producer and marketer with a 60% market share) is currently facing a decrease in sales growth and profit together with unused capacities of its plant and warehouse. Hired by HFP researcher finds out from their Regional Sales Manager, Brenda Cooper, about the difficulties of motivating her team to come up with new ideas of selling to increase the sales.Reasons1. HFP target planning doesn’t involve â€Å"people from the field† while they are the ones who know the local markets, what is realistic, what their capabilities of selling are whereas they are the ones to finally meet the targets.2. Rewarding scheme is not adjusted to the constantly changing market and working environment. Neither does it motivate employees to achieve higher targets set year after year nor does it encourage them to share their creative ideas on selling methods and new market opportunit ies.3. HFP management puts too much pressure on paperwork. Such bureaucracy limits the time sales people spend on selling activities.4. The company seems to have a fixed boundary between the top managers and regular sales forces. It is divided into â€Å"us and them†. Sales forces don’t understand that achieving a general goal is to their own benefit too – they are only focused on their personal goal which is receiving yearly bonus.5. Sales meetings are held without Regional Sales Managers such as Brenda Cooper. How to resolve the problem:1. District Managers should be involved in drawing up sales plans together with Regional Sales Managers who should be then communicating those goals to the Sales and Market Planning Directors.2. Changes of rewarding system should be made so that extra sales are rewarded more i.e.: not only bonus should be increased but also base salary should be revised. Moreover, creative or innovative ideas of regular employees should be reco gnized and prized accordingly to company’s increase in profit so that sales forces don’t get the impression of being â€Å"used† to  the company’s general benefit.3. Limit the paperwork by involving Regional Sales Manager in sales team meetings which would naturally keep them updated without the necessity of producing numerous papers and reports by sales people.4. Introduce team bonding activities, social events which would be attended all kinds of levels of employees: directors, managers and sales people. This would on one hand result in information  exchange crucial to the directors and on the other hand – in building-up of sense of belonging to the company as a whole and understanding the role of an individual in a company.

Monday, September 16, 2019

Poverty In America Essay

Poverty has been on the rise in America, mainly because of the recession and now it is reaching new heights. Even though the government is trying to make more beneficial tax cuts, and find other various solutions, poverty levels continue to rise drastically. But to first find the solution ourselves we must first know what causes poverty and what it is. A simple definition of it is, poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or finances. Absolute poverty refers to the deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care and education. People living in poverty have a much lower standard of living than those who are better off financially. Most people suffering from this deprivation have lost their homes and have difficulty finding things to eat and clothes to dress themselves with. People with money in this country do not have to worry about simple things such as where they will take a shower in the morning or how to ration the small amount of food they have to feed their whole family the day at hand. People with a substantial amount of money do not have to apply for government assistance such as food stamps or unemployment benefits. These also have things like insurance and healthcare to help them along as problems arise in life. People living in poverty do not get that luxury in insurance which gives them a sense of depreciated of self-worth. Because of this, it may be difficult to present themselves in a professional manner when searching for employment. America considers people who make less than 10,500 dollars a year, are a large part of why we have arrived at this dilemma due to the recent recession that has occurred. A lot of people go to desperate measures to provide food and other basic need for their families. For example many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is prostitution as a means of survival for this economic desperation. Terrible living conditions can often compel children to abandon school in order to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited too. This also causes many people that have lost their jobs and are making a fraction of what they are used to making for the job duties they are doing. People now work late past the time they are required to finish their daily task plus other extra work load because their coworker got let go due to the fact that their employer can not afford to pay both of their salaries. These same people now rely on unemployment checks and other government assistance programs to support their families and basic needs. It is estimated that one out of every seven houses have been taken by the banks in the last ten years alone. Because of this, America is seeing an all new kind of poverty. The middle class is slipping from steady ground and down to the bottom. People that used to make a decent living can no longer compete with this new economy. Poverty in today’s society has become a major issue and it affects more people than we think. People are losing jobs and cannot help it. In this economy we live in today it is very hard to make money and provide for our families. These people cannot get all of the help they need because some people are just working the system, so they either get rejected or reject the fact they need because they do not want to categorized with those people. An example, from where I’m from I use to be a cashier at Kroger for two years and so many people on food stamps and the WIC program (Women Infants Children) would come in to buy food and have iPhones and Coach Purses or even keys for Mercedes and if you have any of those thing you do not have your properties in order. This is just not fair for those people that are in dire need for food and using these programs the way they are supposed to be used for. And that is why it’s hard for normal people who work so hard for their money and still do not make enough to provide and the need for a helping hand in food programs such as these. With all this being said, people need to look into the Baptist Faith it is taught that all Christians will go through times of suffering and one of these suffering phases we go through is poverty. Many people now a days seem to be faithful to the church until they become unemployed or fall on hard times financially, and instead of looking to God they tend to blame him. God does not make bad things happen, it is not his plans to harm us but protect from the evil that is causing the suffering. I agree with the Baptist Faith on their view towards poverty. Furthermore, I believe if more people just trusted in God more faithfully and I know it is easier said than done but it would help many peoples walk with the Lord on the right path and further it.

Sunday, September 15, 2019

Comparative policing systems Essay

Introduction Policing is not a recent issue in terms which duty of state as protecting both public and state still remains as a concept to focus on, yet, it is current enough to remember and to consider again. In this comparative study, policing systems of United Kingdom, Turkey and France will be controversially discussed in terms of policing related to its legitimacy, its structure, and its function. In the first section, the concepts of legitimacy, structure, and function will be defined. Afterwards, British policing system will be examined in terms of these three conceptions. Following British system, Turkish policing system which has been remarkably adapted to new policing concepts despite the fact that there are more to deal with will be following subject. Then, lastly, French system which has effectively been a model for some countries will be analyzed so as to understand ‘The Continental Model’. After analyzing three countries, the similarities and differences between British and ‘The Continental System’ will be focused on, more particularly within a proposition that British Policing leads the way. Policing: Legitimacy, Structure, and Function Modern police was often seen as an instrument of progress, consistent with the idea of free enterprise, academic freedom, constitutional protection against arbitrary government (Liang, 2002, p: 4). Although there has been a common acceptance of policing recently, as Liang stated, there are different police systems all over the world. In order to be able to analyze and compare police systems, there are three terms by the help of which policing in different societies can be examined; legitimacy, structure, and function. In his early study, Bayley asserts that three characteristics of the police contemporarily exist in today’s world and these as dichotomous are public/private, specialized/no specialized, professional/nonprofessional. Being public/private oriented refers to the nature of the police agency and can easily be confused with community authorization, specialization for a police agency, in opposite terms of that unspecialized police force is authorized to use force but do many other things as well, concentres on the application of force, and professionalism refers to explicit preparation to perform the unique police function (Bayley, 1990, p: 11-13). Using this triple explanation, Bayley originally emphasizes on legitimacy, structure and function of policing. Similarly, Mawby attempts to compare different police systems according to legitimacy, structure, and function. Moreover, he defines these terms. â€Å"Legitimacy implies that the police are granted some degree of monopoly within society by those with the power to so authorize, be they an elite within the society, an occupying power, or the community as a whole.†(1990, p: 3). Structure means specialization/non specialization, and function implies that the role of the police is concentrated on the maintenance of law and order prevention and detection of offences. Nevertheless, this is not only about these fixed concepts, but also the balance between law and order, or prevention and detection and being service-related, administrative, or concerned with political control (Mawby, 1990). United Kingdom; Policing System Police systems in England and Wales prior to the 19th century are portrayed private, non-professional, and unspecialized by authors such as Critchley (1978) and Radzinowicz (1956a). After creation of ‘new police’, ‘The Metropolitan Police Force’ (1829), London’s first centralized, uniformed, wholly professional, centrally-controlled police force (Reynolds, 1998) and similar forces were established in other urban and rural areas between 1835 and 1888, so the nineteenth century was a breakpoint. After a dynamic duration in 20th century, now there are currently 43 police forces in England and Wales employing over 233,000 personnel, over 140,000 police officers, nearly 78,000 police staff and over 15,600 Police Community Support Officers. Additionally, there are currently in excess of 14,500 volunteer police officers known as Special Constables in England and Wales (Home Office, 2009). The 51 police forces those were over 100 prior to the Police Act of 1964 in England, Wales, and Scotland each headed by a Chief Constable who is accountable to a Police Authority (Tupman and Tupman, 1999). In Scotland, there are 8 constabularies corresponding to the 8 former regional governments of Scotland. Initially, in terms of function, the police’s role is crime control and maintenance public order, more specifically crime prevention through uniformed patrol while, at the same time, fulfilling a welfare and service order public (Mawby, 2008). Secondly, in terms of structure, there is a balance between local and central control and organization. The modern police system in England and Wales is traced back to the early nineteenth century, this idea is reinforced by Bayley in such a way that he states that â€Å"The modern English police constable is medieval Tythingman1, still acting under royal authority but now serving at public expense in a chosen career† (1990, p: 29). The 1962 Royal Commission on the Police identified the protection of local police forces’ autonomy through the institution of the three partite structure of accountability: individual chief constables, police authorities and central government claims Mawby in his study dedicated to compare policing systems all over the world (2008). From a more general perspective, in UK structure is decentralized compared to continental system, and there are local police forces with the help of these information, but Northern Ireland has a different system based on colonial system (Mawby, 1992). It is possible, in terms of structure, to say that police is decentralized, unarmed, and civilian force (Mawby, 1990). Afterwards, in terms of legitimacy there is a tendency to do what public want. It is possible to see on the green paper that the police are in attempts to improve the connection between public and the police: This Green Paper sets out proposals for a new policing pledge which will be developed in partnership between the police and local people (Green Paper, July 2008). In his recent study, Mawby states that there at least four attempts to allay public concern by providing public access to local police management: Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnerships (CDRPs), the formation of police consultative committees, the establishment of lay visitors schemes, and the introduction of Independent Advisory Groups to monitor police racism following the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry (Mawby, 2008, p: 21). Turkey; Policing System The history of the police in Turkey derives from Ottoman Empire in 19th century like public administration through adapting to French prefecture model (Mercedes and Newburn, 2008, p: 34). Moreover, Turkish civilian administration system is influenced by the French civilian administration system and its domestic security approach (Celador, Gemma Collantes et al 2008). Security function is provided by both public and private sector, and there are three public law enforcement institutions: the police, the jandarma (gendarmerie) and the coast guard command. The jandarma and the coast guard command are responsible to the Minister of Interior as well as the police; yet, the jandarma and the coast guard command are military institutions. In terms of promotions, appointments, personnel administration, disciplinary and judiciary procedures, the jandarma corps is located within the military structure headed by the Office of the Chief of General Staff, who, in turn, responds to the Office of the Prime Minister, instead of to the Ministry of National Defence. Additionally, the national police force and the jandarma are different in terms of their respective jurisdictions and responsibilities vis-à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½-vis the civilian government authorities (Celador, Gemma Collantes et al 2008, p: 8). Jurisdiction of the police geographically differs from the jandarma’s jurisdiction; the police provide security in urban areas rather whereas the jandarma are responsible for rural areas. In terms of structure, the police force is centralized, thus, compared to western central administration models, this structure is excessively central (Cerrah, 2005).In terms of function, there is obviously a higher number of the jandarma compared to the police, although urban areas contain more population than rural areas. There are some 193,000 police whereas the jandarma are between 280,000 and 300,000 (Mercedes and Newburn, 2008). According to Mercedes and Newburn’s study which is one of the last studies about Turkey and policing system, number of the jandarma is highly more than the police’s. There are several reasons but, eventually, as a result of disproportional allocation, the priority is not welfare but the continuity of order in terms of administrative and political tasks in addition to crime prevention. Last of all, in terms of legitimacy, police legitimacy derives from law rather than public. After legislation through the EU twinning projects, for example with amendments and modifications on Law on Powers and Tasks of Police (1936), the government has aimed at changing consideration of police as a ‘service’ rather than ‘power’. Nevertheless, in practice, this is not easily possible. â€Å"Despite all the time that has passed since then, the Turkish police organisation has been unable to establish systemic institutional civilian participation and a satisfactory control mechanism. On both national and regional level, security policies and practices are only run and supervised by appointed civilian administration authorities and police administrators.† claims Cerrah (2005) and as he adds the police still have to do more to be more accountable. Unless the police are more accountable and open to be controlled by civilian mechanism, legitimacy of the police will be discussed as well as its function. However, community policing is a new issue in Turkey with a pilot practicing in ten big cities including Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, and Bursa (Directorate General of Security, 2009). There is a tendency to be more people-oriented. France; Policing System French police system is arguably the first modern system in Europe whereas The London Metropolitan Police is known to be the first modern police (Mawby 1990, p: 34, Bowden, 1978, p: 140). Bowden also adds that 615 is the year first peace and police existed in France, but, ironically, French is the nation who has frequently experienced the discontinuity in a nation’s political life despite the fact that they developed the most sophisticated police in Europe (1978). The police function in France is rooted to Roman law tradition, and since the French Revolution (1789), historically, there are significant processes but it is not going to be discussed because of lack of space. Today, police system in French can be analyzed through being distinguished as the police nationale and gendarmerie nationale. The gendarmerie are accountable to three different authorities: to Minister of Justice for criminal investigations, to the Ministry of Interior for public order, or administrative matters, and to the Ministry of Defence for all other aspects of their work whereas the police nationale are responsible to the Minister of Justice for criminal investigations, and to the Ministry of Interior for public order, or administrative matters (Hodgson, 2005). According to Hodgson’s account, which compares French criminal justice system to British systems and includes an extensive investigation, the police nationale is composed of some 120,000 officers – now according to Interpol 126,000 – whereas the Gendarmerie comprises some 85,000 officers – now according to Interpol 90,000 (2009) – (2005). Moreover, there are some 3000 small municipal police forces. In terms of structure French police system is centralized as it is seen from this portray, the police forces are armed and – not exactly- militaristic. France is typically an example of continental European system and in terms of function police system in France is putting emphasises on administrative and political tasks rather than welfare (Mawby, 2008, p: 22). As a consequence of being centrally organized, France has more centralized policing system with two main forces the police nationale and the gendarmerie compared to British policing system and less centralized compared to Turkish police system. Compared with UK, the availability of other community initiatives involving polis-public cooperation such as neighbourhood watch or volunteer police auxiliaries are relatively unknown (Mawby, 1990). As a continental European country, in terms of legitimacy the police and the gendarmerie are closely tied to government rather than public or law. United Kingdom (Excluding Northern Ireland) Turkey France Legitimacy Local government Central government Central government Function Welfare Crime prevention, emphasis on administrative tasks Crime prevention, emphasis on administrative tasks Structure Decentralized Centralized (More excessively) Centralized It is possible to infer from whole information that United Kingdom, excluding Northern Ireland, has community-oriented policing system where as France and Turkey have continental and highly centralized and government oriented policing systems. Mawby who has a range of comparative police studies since early 1990s sees continental police systems in the past as being distinguished in terms of their lack of accountability, being directly responsible to the head of state, and he adds in another study that â€Å"While this less easily reconciled with the liberal democracies of post-war Europe, it is still the case that public accountability is more restricted in countries where the police are more centralized and militaristic† (2008, p: 23). Also in Turkey, â€Å"more recently, with the increased quality of the police training and education, the rising numbers of commissioners and officers receiving masters and doctorates (some on topics including human rights law, technologically more advanced crime-fighting methods, etc.) and the positive impact of EU twinning projects, a younger reformist wing seems to have emerged within the police. This wing is also psychologically supported by civil societal demands for the establishment of more professional, accountable and transparent police structures.† (Celador, Gemma Collantes et al, 2008, p: 9) From a historical perspective; between 1804 and 1810 in France, during Napoleon’s dictatorship Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ was his strong right arm and was commanding French police. Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, Duc d’Otranto, had an army consisting of spies and agent provocateurs spreading insidious terror and repression throughout France (Manwaring-White, 1993). As Manwaring-White states, there was a very real fear in Britain that any sort police force like in France would result the same fearful invasion of privacy and liberty. On the other, while Robert peel was introducing his Metropolis Police Improvement Bill, he had figures to show a population increase of 19 per cent in London and Middlesex, but an increase in crime of 55 per cent between the periods of seven years from 1811 to 1818 and from 1821-1828 (Emsley, 1991). The bill passed through the parliament and The Metropolitan Police of London was established contrast to French militaristic system. However, contentiously, despite the horror of the Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ regime in France, the British government did employ spies and agents to try and uncover hints of treasonable activity or political unrest and despite anathema to French style spies, a detective department was reorganised in Scotland in 1842 (Manwaring-White, 1993). There several attempts contrast to thought because of which the Met was established. Furthermore, during the 70s the developments in police riot brought the English police closer in their riot tactics and equipments, yet, unlike continental neighbours, employers were not specialized riot squads (Emsley, 1991). Finally, the men, responsible for creation the English police during the 19th century, wanted to restrict the political and military nature of the new police, but Emsley states that despite these reasons of creation of English police, the economic, political and social nature of Victorian England was instrumental in helping some people to achieve their aim (1991). By contrast with whom see centralized system as incorporating problems of non-accountability and partisanship, Mawby critically examines this idea. Firstly, one should not assume that locally, community-oriented systems are necessarily panaceas; they may incorporate problems of non-accountability, elite control and partisanship. Secondly, however, although political policing has been more a future of policing systems in countries where the police are militaristic, there is no clear relationship between the presence of one, central police system and these features. Nor is a central system necessarily incompatible with local accountability. Last of all, as illustrated in his study, the presence of absence of a single, centralized police is no more evidence of a ‘police state’ than is the presence or absence of the jury system (Mawby, 1992, p: 125-126). Today, in terms of function, structure, and legitimacy, community-oriented systems are seen more advantageous, but privacy and liberty of individuals are threatened by the surveillance, bugging and file-keeping methods of modern police (Manwaring-White, 1993). Bibliography Books Bayley, David H. (1990) Patterns of Policing: A Comparative International Analysis, Rutgers University Press. Bowden, T. (1978), Beyond the Limits of Law, Harmondsworth: Penguin Cerrah, Ibrahim, â€Å"Police†, in Cizre, Umit (ed.), Almanac Turkey 2005: Security Sector and Democratic Oversight, Istanbul: TESEV Publications, 2006, pp. 86-99. Critchley, T.A. (1978), ‘The History of Police in England and Wales’ in Mawby, Rob I. (1990), Comparative Police Issues: The British and American system in international perspective, London: Unwin Hyman. Celador, Gemma Collantes et al (2008), Fostering an EU Strategy for Security Sector Reform in the Mediterranean: Learning from Turkish and Palestinian Police Reform Experiences, EuroMeSCo Paper 66 (January 2008) Emsley, Clive (1991), the English Police, a Political and Social History, Second Edition, Addison Wesley: Longman Hin, Mercedes S and Newburn, Tim (2008) Policing Developing Democracies, Taylor & Francis Hodgson, Jacqueline (2005), French Criminal Justice: A Comparative Account of the Investigation and Prosecution of Crime in France, Hart, University of Michigan Lambert, John L. (1986) Police Powers and Accountability, Taylor & Francis Manwaring-White, Sarah (1983) the Policing Revolution, Police Technology, Democracy and Liberty in Britain, the Harvester Press Mawby, Rob I. (1990), Comparative Police Issues: The British and American system in international perspective, London: Unwin Hyman. Mawby, RI (1992) Comparative police systems: searching for a continental model, pp: 108-132 in K. Bottomley, T. Fowles and R. Reiner (eds.) (1992) Criminal Justice: Theory and Practice, British Criminology Conference 1991, London: British Society of Criminology. Mawby Rob I. (2008), Models of Policing, in Newburn, Tim (ed.) (2008) Handbook of Policing, 2nd Edition, Cullompton: Willan, pp: 17-46. Radzinowicz, L. (1956a), A history of English Criminal Law and its administration from 1750, Volume 1: The Movement for Reform in Mawby, Rob I. (1990), Comparative Police Issues: The British and American system in international perspective, London: Unwin Hyman. Reynolds, Elaine A. (1998), Before the Bobbies, Stanford University Press. Liang, Hsi-Huey (2002), The Rise of Modern Police and the European State System from Metternich to the Second World War, Cambridge University Press, pp: 11-13. Tupman, Bill and Tupman, Alison (1999), Policing in Europe, Intellect Books. Websites Home office (2009) About Us, available: http://police.homeoffice.gov.uk/about-us/ last accessed 18 March 2009. Directorate General of Security (2009) Community Policing, available: http://www.asayis.pol.tr/tdpyapilanmasunumu_dosyalar/frame.htm. Last accessed 18 March 2009. Interpol (2009) France: Police system, available: http://www.interpol.int/Public/Region/Europe/pjsystems/France.asp. Last accessed 18 March 2009 Additional Source Green Paper (2008), From the Neighbourhood to the National: Policing Our Communities Together, Green Paper, Home Office, July 2008 1 Tythingman was of Saxon times and he was elected by his peers in the local community and exercised wide responsibilities for all aspects of local government on heir behalf†¦ He was not , however, a royal officer, as his authority derived from the community he served rather than from the sovereign (Lambert, 1986, p: 21)